
GopyrightN^. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



t. 



WORKS OF THOMAS D. WEST 



PUBLISHED BY 



JOHN WILEY & SONS. 



American Foundry Practice. 

Treating of Loam, Dry-sand and Green-sand 
Moulding, and containing a Practical Treatise 
upon the Manag^ement of Cupolas and the Melting 
of Iron. Fully illustrated. lamo, cloth, $2.50. 



Moulder's Text-book, being Part II of American 
Foundry Practice. 

A Practical Treatise on Moulding, discussing the 
question of Economy in Casting, and the arrange- 
ment of a Foundry in regard to rapid work. 
Treating of Cupolas. Methods of Firing, Best 
Means of Securing Perfect and Sound Castings, 
etc. Being a continuation of Vol. I on this subject, 
and dealing with a class of work requiring more 
skill and greater care. With numerous illustra- 
tions. i2rao, cloth, $2.50. 



WEST-IS 

MOULDEKS' TEXT-BOOK: 



BEING PART II. OF 

AMERICAN FOUKDRY PRACTICE. 

FRESENTING 

BEST METHODS AND ORIGINAL RULES FOR OBTAXNING GOOD, 

SOUND, CLEAN CASTINGS; AND GIVING DETAILED 

DESCRIPTION FOR MAKING MOULDS REQUIRING 

SKILL AND EXPERIENCE. 

ALSO CONTAINING 

A PRACTICAL TREATISE UPON THE CONSTRUCTION OP 

CRANES AND CUPOLAS, AND THE MELTING 

OF IRON AND SCRAP-STEEL IN 

IRON FOUNDRIES. 




PRACTICAL MOULDER AND FOUNDRY MANAGER , iitjIHER OF AMERICAN SOCIEIY OP 

MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, AMERICAN FOUNDRYMEN'S ASSOCIATION, CIVIL 

engineers' club OF CLEVELAND, AND HONORARY MEMBER 

OP THE FOUNDRYMEN'S ASSOCIATIONS OF PHILADELPHIA 

AND CHICAGO; AUTHOR "AMERICAN FOUNDRY 

PRACTICE" AND "'METALLURGY OP 

CAST IRON." 

FULLY ILLUSTRATED. 

NINTH EDITION, FNLAliGEi).' • 

FIRST THOCSApip, , . ■ ,- 

NEW YORK: 

JOHN WILEY & SONS. 

London : CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited. 

1901. 



V^ 



^ 



<5 ", f^v 



THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 

Two Copifes Received 

AUG. 27 1901 

Copyright entry 

CLASS A/ xXa N». 

COPY B. 



Copyright, 1885, 1901, 
Bt THOMAS D. WEST. 



/- ^'i>'^<^ I 



PEEFAOE. 



Although it is more than two years since the appearance 
of the first voUime, the author cannot refrain from here tender- 
ing his most sincere thanks to the press and public of America 
and England for the cordial reception given his first book. 
Also, to American foundry men and moulders the author is 
greatly indebted for the universally rapid introduction of his 
work among them. 

The compliments which were so kindly tendered the first 
volume have encouraged and stimulated the author to write this 
second book. 

Many of the original articles here submitted, as in vol. i., 
appeared in the "•American Machinist," and have been revised 
for this volume. Also, many of these articles have had valua- 
ble additions made to them. 

The subjects of Cupolas and Melting, also those of mould- 
ing in green sand, in dry sand, and in loam, are extensively 
treated; and this volume, in connection with vol. i., it is 
thought affords a thorough presentation of each subject. 

The author received many communications regretting the 
lack of a treatise upon cranes in the first volume : hence he 
has endeavored to present, in this, the practical and esseiHial 



j V PREFACE. 

features to be considered in properly constructing them fof 
foundry use. Jib, post, and travelling cranes are treated, so 
that ideas of practical value may be obtained, either for engi- 
neers or foundrymen. 

Wherever the author has thought an engraving would be of 
any assistance in making his subjects clear, such illustration 
is given. 

As stated in the preface to vol. i., there is certainly a 
very large field for new ideas and progress in foundry practice ; 
and the author hopes that his studies and advanced methods 
here presented to the practical moulders of America verify the 
above statement, and will be as kindly received as those of 

his first book. 

THOMAS D. WEST. 

Cleveland, January, 1885. 



PEEFACE TO EIGHTH EDITION. 

Having recently thoroughly revised "American Foundry 
Practice " and placed it in keeping with the advance of the 
general workings of founding, it is but proper that the same 
interest should be displayed in revising this work. By com- 
paring this edition with the last, readers will find this to 
have been done in such a manner that all those competent 
to judge, the author believes, will say that this work is as 
valuable to the trade to-day as when it was first written in 
1885. THOS. D. WEST. 

Sharpsville, Pa.. August, 1900. 



PREFACE TO THE NINTH EDITION. 

Tfiis edition has been enlarged considerably and the new 
material which has been added will be found for the most 
part included between pages 375 and 430. Some of this 
new material was originally presented in the first and second 
editions of a treatise on " The Metallurgy of Cast Iron " by 
the author. 

In making this revision the author has endeavored to show 
the latest improvements in the construction and manage- 
ment of cupolas, most of which is based on his own experi- 
ence during the past five years. He has set forth the ad- 
vantages derived from what is known as the center blast and 
believes that these additions make his present work, in con- 
nection with Vol. I, the most complete treatise on American 
Foundry Practice extant. 

Shaepsville, Pa., Aug., 1901. 



CONTENTS. 



THE ENGINEER, DRAUGHTSMAN, AND FOUNDER. 

Paob 

Sound Casting 1 

Defects in Stnictural Castings 14 



PROGRESS IN MOULDING. 

Novelties in Foundry Practice 22 

Mental and Playsical Development in Moulding 26 

Perfection in Moulding . . . « 28 

Geometry in the Foundry 32 



PROCURING CLEAN-FINISHED CASTINGS FROM DRY- 
SAND AND LOAM MOULDS. 

Making Cylinders and Castings to Finish , 38 

Moulding and casting Cylinders to procure Clean Valve Faces . . 48 



HIGH-ART MOULDING IN LOAM AND DRY SAND. 

Casting Whole or in Parts, and Points in Cylinder Moulding . . 54 

Moulding a Jacketed Cylinder 60 

Revolving Core and Under-surface Sweeping 66 

Sweeping Grooved Cone Drums 72 

Sweeping Grooved Straight Drums 76 

Moulding Propeller- Wheels in Loam ....... 81 

Moulding an Hydraulic Hoist Casting in Dry Sand . . . .89 

Crashing and Finning of Dry Sand and Loam Castings . . .86 

V 



VI CONTENTS. 

MANIPULATING OF CORES. 

Pasb 

Making and Venting Cores • • • . 101 

Securing Core Vents 108 

PROCURING CLEAN-FINISHED CASTINGS FROM GREEN- 
SAND MOULDS. 

Casting Finished Work Horizontally 114 

Heavy and Light "Work Skimming-Gates . . . # . . . 120 
Top-pouring Gates, and Sweepin': a Lathe Face-Plate . . .129 

METHODS AND RULES FOR GREEN-SAND AND GENERAL 
MOULDING. 

Small Castings, — The Mould-Board and Flask-Hinge . . . 134 
Pipes, Green-Sand Cores and Hollow Pipe Patterns .... 140 

Bedding-in and Rolling-over 146 

Coping, Venting, and Jointing Green-Sand Moulds .... 155^ 

Dravi^ing and Making Patterns . 16^ 

Skin-Drying Green-Sand Moulds 16? 

Setting and Centring Cores 173 

Improper Setting and Wedging of Chaplets 179 

Momentum and Rules for Weighting down Copes and Cores . . 187 

MISCELLANEOUS CHAPTERS. 

Elements and Manufacture of Foimdry Facing 208 

Welding Steel to Cast-iron, and Mending Cracked Castings >. . 217 

Foundry Addition, — Oven and Pits . 225 

Ladle and Casting Carriage combined 231 

Making Chilled Rolls, and Roll Flask, Runners and Gates . . . 234 

Moulding-Machines 240 

Equivalent Areas for Round, Square, and Rectangular Pouring-Gates . 244 
Errors in Figuring Weights of Castings 247 

CONTRIBUTED 

Melting Small Quantities of Iron . 
Making a Curved Pipe from a Straiglit Pattern 
Moulding Pipes on End in Green Sand 
Three Ways of Making an Air- Vessel 
i Method of Moulding Gear- Wheels 



CHAPTERS. 






. 248 


Pattern . 


. 250 


. • * 


. 252 


• • • 


. 256 


• « • 1 


. 2U1 



CONTENTS. 



Vll 



CUPOLAS AND MELTING IRON. 

Paoe 

Small Cupolas 265 

Coke and Coal in Melting Iron 273 

Intelligence and Economy in Melting 282 

Oddity and Science in the Construction of Cupolas .... 287 

Comments on Cupolas 301 

Blast and Combustion 305 

Slagging out Cupolas 810 

Areas of Tuyeres and Blast Pipes 315 

Table of Cupola and Tuyere Areas 321 

Table of Circumference and Areas of Circles, also the Areas of 

Squares 322 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE.* 
Preface 329 



Portland, Me. 
Portsmouth, N.H. 
Boston, Mass. 
Holyoke, Mass. 
Worcester, Mass. 
Springfield, Mass. 
Providence, R.I. 
WethersfieUi, Conn. 
New- York City 
Yonkers, N.Y. 
Syracuse, N.Y. 
Rochester, N.Y. 
Jersey City, N.J. 
Mount Holly, N.J. 
Philadelphia, Penn. 
Erie, Penn. 
Pittsburgh, Penn. 
Baltimore, Md. 
Wilmington, Del. 
Cincinnati, O. 
Portsmouth, O. 
Akron, O. 
Youngstown, O. 
Lansing, Mich. 



(44" cupola) 330 

(24" cupola) 331 

(44" cupola) 332 

(50" cupola) 333 

(26" cupola) 334 

(28" cupola) 335 

(38" X 53" cupola) 336 

(33" cupola) 337 

(78" X 48" cupola) 338 

339 

340 

341 

. ^ 342 

. * 343 



(48" cupola 
(40" cupola 
(48" cupola 
(45" cupola 
(41" cupola 
(116" X .54" 
(32" cupola 
(.54" cupola 
(54" cupola 
(36" cupola 
(42" cupola 
(40" cupola 
(38" cupola 
(48" cupola 
(29" cupola 



cupola) 344 

345 

346 

347 

348 

349 

350 

351 

352 

35S 



1 The dimensione of cupolas shown are their inside dlameteri. 



VIU 


CONTENTS. 














Pask 


Indianapolis, Ind. 


(36" cupola) 354 


Chicago, 111. 


(66" X 42" cupola) 










. 355 


Galesburg, 111. 


(30" cupola) 










. 356 


Beloit, Wis. 


(40" cupola) 












. 357 


Minneapolis, Minn. 


(35" cupola) 












. 358 


Burlington, lo. 


(25" cupola) 












. 359 


Grinnell, lo. 


(34" cupola) 












. 360 


Omaha, Xeb. 


(50" cupola) 












. 361 


Denver, Col. 


(32" cupola) 












. 362 


Fort Scott, Kan. 


(36" cupola) 












. 363 


St. Louis, Mo. 


(54" cupola) 












. 364 


Ashland, Ky. 


(30" cupola) 












. 365 


Richmond, Va. 


(40" cupola) 












. 366 


Salem, N.C. 


(26" cupola) 












. 367 


Nashville, Tenn. 


(56" cupola) 












. 368 


Chattanooga, Tenn. 


(28" cupola) 












. 369 


Montgomery, Ala. 


(28" cupola) 












. 370 


Columbus, Ga, 


(30" cupola) 










. 371 


Palatka, Fla. 


(22" cupola) 










. 372 


Marysville, Cal. 


(32" cupola) . 










. 373 


The Dalles, Ore. 


(34" cupola) 






. 




. 374 


Portland, Ore. 


(23" cupola ) 












. 375 



UTILITY AND CONSTRUCTION OF OBLONG, CONTRACTED 
" CENTER-BLAST," NATURAL- AND HOT-BLAST CUPOLAS. 

Superiority of Rouud over Contracted and Oblong Cupolas . , 376 

Introduction to Center-blast Cupola Practice 381 

Hibler's Patent Center Blast 382 

Stott's Center-blast Cupola 384 

Caldwell's Center-blast Cupola Experiments 387 

Johnson's Patent Center-blast Cupola 388 

General Utility, Economy and Construction of Center-blast Cupolas 389 
Construction and Utility of Center Blast for Small Ciijiolas . . 404 
General Application of and Instructions for Utilizing Center Blast . 408 
Introduction to Natural- and Suction-draft Cupolas . . ' . . 413 

Allen's Natural-draft Cupola 414 

Construction of Natural- and Suction-draft Cupolas . . . 416 
Utility of Hot- blast Cupolas . 426 



CONTENTS. 



IX 



UTILIZING CAST-STEEL SCRAR 

IMelting Steel in Ordiuaiy Cupola „ 431 

Mixing Steel with Cast-iron to obtain Strong or Chilled Castings . 432 



FOUNDRY CRANES. 

Steam-Power Cranes 

Friction-Power Cranes ..... 

Haud-Power Iron Cranes 

Hand-Power Wooden Cranes • • . • 
Post Cranes ....... 

Travelling Cranes ...... 

Geariug-up Cranes 

Multiplying Parts iu Cranes Sustaining Cords . 

Hooks 

Balancing and Hoisting Moulds 

Index ... 



437 
442 
446 
451 
463 
468 
475 
481 
483 
490 

494 



THE 

ENGINEER AND FOUNDER. 



SOUND CASTING. 



[Read by the author before the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 
New- York City, November, 1884.] 

The term sound is of far more importance than any other 
which can be applied to designate a good casting. A sound 
casting can seldom be judged by its outward appearance. The 
smooth skin is often nothing but a shell covering defectiveness, 
and not until a casting is broken is its soundness known. 

Soundness is often of more value in determining the strength 
of a casting, than the quality of iron of which it is made. A 
casting made of the best of strong iron can easily have its 
strength annulled through inner defectiveness. Almost all 
machinery castings are more or less liable to contain holes from 
sand, or shrinkage, or blow-holes. Castings are often so con- 
structed, thai, even were the moulder to turn them out free of 
sand or blow-holes, the shrinkage-hole would show up, were 
the casting to be broken, despite all the feeding he could do. 
The reason for this is best shown through an explanation of 
Fig. 1. Here we have, as is often the case, a heavy and a 
light section connected. Now, were it always practicable to 
have the heaviest part the uppermost, as seen at Fig. 2, so as 
to be accessible for feeding, then the moulder could justly be 
blamed were the casting not sound. 

1 



SOUND CASTING. 



No doubt every engineer will at a glance perceive the diffi- 
culty iu obtaining the perfect soundness of such a section as 
Fig. 1. Here we have the heaviest portion surmounted by a 
light body, which will be set much the soonest. The light part 
having frozen, any feeding-head that may be over it cannot be 
of any further benefit in supplying the lower heavy portion to 
feed its solidifying crust, which, by the way, in many cases, 
may not have begun to set until after the upper light part has 



JPeedet 



Feeder 



feeder 




Fig. t. 



Fig. 2 



Fig. 3. 



nearly solidified. This lower body, having nothing now left to 
draw from, will draw metal from its uppermost liquid portion ; 
which, in such a section as shown, would leave cavities which 
would be apt to weaken the casting at A. 

In practice, when such sections as at Fig. 1 are thought to 
be required to stand much strain, it is best generally, when 
practicable, to have an enlargement made, as seen at J5, Fig. 3. 
This gives a body which, by means of a feeding- rod, and by 
occasionally pouring hot iron in the feeding-head, will remain 
in a fluid state as long as the heavy portion. This accom- 



SOUND CASTING. 3 

plished, it can be readily seen that the formation of a cavity, 
as at A, Fig. 1, is prevented. 

(It must be, however, understood, that enlarging a section, 
as in Fig. 3, is only recommended in cases where it is not 
practicable to attach independent feeding-heads. Where such 
a section, as in Fig. 3, is at the outer portion of a mould, and 
the heavy part to be fed is below the joint of the mould, it may, 
in many cases, be fed by feeders placed from 6" to 8" from the 
surface of the mould. Connections running from the feeding- 
heads, if the case would not admit of branch gates being drawn 
inward or outward, could easily be formed with cores having 
holes of the size required.) 

Now, it is by no means practicable to attain soundness in all 
castings by the above means ; for there are many moulds in 
which the intended form of the casting would be made almost 
unrecognizable, were the}- to have all their heavy sections thus 
reached and fed by risers. Attending this is often the imprac- 
ticability of placing over three or four feeders upon a mould ; 
for often the bars of the cope, chaplets, binders, and weights 
will not permit the use of any more. Then, again, were it prac- 
ticable to have a cope filled with feeding-heads, there are many 
castings, which, in order to be sound, would require that more 
men be taken off from the work of "running off the heat'' 
than foundries at casting-time can generally spare. 

It is very evident, from the shapes of existing patterns and 
castings, that but little thought has been given to this element 
involved in obtaining an entirely sound casting. The best place 
to study this error is at the scrap-pile. There one can find 
the shrinkage-hole in many forms. Often fillets which were 
intended as factors for strength will be found to be exactly the 
reverse. The greater part of machinery castings made are 
more or less filleted ; and some designers have the idea that 
the larger the fillet, the greater the strength given. In cases 
where the fillet is fed by other metal than that contained in its 



SOUND CASTING. 



central body, this may be true. Often fillets are so situated, 
they cannot be fed by other than the metal contained within 
their own body ; and therefore, as illustrated by Fig. 4, a large 
fillet in such cases may often be a source of unsoundness. 




Tester 



^ 



~m 



u 



Fig. 4. 

A well-proportioned casting should not always be considered 
only from the standpoint of the strains which its respective 
parts have to stand. While it is often true that some part may 
be very light in comparison with others, it is more often better 
that the light part be made heavier, in excess of what its strength 
requires., in order that strains may be avoided, as well as " draw- 
holes," caused through unequal thickness of parts. 

To give some data as to what extent ordinary cast-iron will 
shrink, I have lately been experimenting with round balls of 
different diameters. The sizes of these were respectively about 
4", 5f", 6f", and 10|". Two of each size were cast at three 
different heats, thus making altogether twenty-four balls ; and 
of these, twelve were cast without any feeders, while twelve 
had them. The feeding-heads for 4" balls were 2^" diameter ; 
for 5f" balls, 3V' diameter ; for 6|" ball, 4" diameter ; for 
lOf" ball, 5" diameter. 

For the first three sizes, the height of the head from the 
flask-joint up to the top of gate was 9", and for the lOf" balls 
the gate-head was 12". The gates which admitted the metal 
into the moulds were cut broad and very thin, in order that 



SOUND CASTING. O 

they should freeze a few moments after the mould became full, 
thereby insuring that metal did not enter through the pouring- 
gates to suj<|)ly any shrinkage. In pouring these balls, the 
iron was medium hot, and the gates were filled up to the heights 
given. The balls having the feeding-heads were "churned" 
until they solidified. In cleaning the castings, the feeding- 
heads were chipped off, so as to preserve the spherical form of 
the balls as much as possible. 

This statement with reference to the manner of moulding and 
casting the balls is simply given to show the conditions under 
which the tests were made. 

The following is a table giving the weights of the balls, and 
the difference between the fed and the unfed balls : — 

FIRST HEAT. 

Mixture of Iron. 
200 lbs. ordinary No. 2 pig and 400 fcs. scrap. 



Diameter 
OF Balls. 


Fed. 


Unfed. 


Sheinkage Found. 


Peecentaqe of 
Sbbineaoe. 


4" 
5i" 

log" 


8 lbs. 12 oz. 
20 lbs. 11 oz. 
39 lbs. lOJ oz. 
150 fts. 


8 lbs. 10 oz. 

20 fcs. 8 oz. 

39 lbs. 4 oz. 

147 lbs. 15 oz. 


2 oz. 

3 oz. 
e^oz. 

33 oz. 


1.428 
0.906 
1.024 
1.375 



SECOND HEAT. 

^fixture of Iron. 
100 fts. No. 1, Bessemer. A strong coke iron. 
100 lbs. No. 1, Hubbard. A strong coke iron. 
100 lbs. No. 1, Pine Grove. A strong charcoal iron. 
300 tbs. Machinery scrap. 



Diameter 
OF Ballb. 


Fed. 


Unfed. 


SHBINKAGE FO0ND. 


Fekcentaqe of 
Shkinkaqe. 


4" 
5g" 
Of 
lOi" 


8 lbs. 13J oz. 
20 lbs. 13 oz. 
39 lbs. Hi oz. 
149 lbs. 12 oz. 


8 lbs. 12 oz. 
20 lbs. 9 oz. 
39 lbs. 6 oz. 
148 lbs. 7 oz. 


IJoz. 

4 oz. 

b\ oz. 

21 oz. 


1.060 
1.201 
0.865 
0.876 



This second heat was poured with middling fluid iron. 



SOUND CASTING. 



THIRD HEAT. 

Mixture of Iron. 
400 fts. No. 1, Hubbard. A strong coke iron. 
200 lbs. Machinery scrap-iron. 



DIAMETEK 

OP Balls. 


Fed. 


Unfed. 


Shkinkagk Found. 


Percentage of 
Shbinkaoe. 


4" 
hi" 

er 
log" 


8 lbs. U% oz. 
20 lbs. 14 oz. 
39 lbs. 12J oz. 
149 lbs. 8 oz. 


8 lbs. 12^ oz. 
20 lbs. 95 oz. 
39 lbs. Tj oz. 
148 tbs. 6 oz. 


2ioz. 
i\ oz. 
5 oz. 
18 oz. 


1.576 
1.272 
0.785 
0.752 



In this third heat, with the exception of the lOf" balls, they 
were all ponred with a more fluid metal than was used in the 
two upper heats. This I would assign as the reason for the 6f", 
5f", and 4" balls being heavier than in any of the other two 
heats shown. 

In classing one heat against another, the mixture of the 
iron must be taken into consideration. Balls from each of 
the respective heats were split in order to learn, if possible, 
the cause of the dissimilarity of weight most noticeable in the 
smaller sizes. 




FED 



UNFED 



Fig. 5. 
The cut at Fig. 5 partly illustrates the fracture of the split 
balls. The smallest-sized unfed balls showed a very open grain 



SOUND CASTING. 7 

At their centres, gradually increasing in density towards the 
shell. The unfed 10|" balls were not only very porous at their 
centres, but contained large holes as well. The flat place seen 
at K shows about how the top part of the unfed balls looked. 
This was, of course, formed while the crust remained fluid 
enough to supply shrinkage. After the crust became set, the 
balance of shrinkage was then drawn from the innermost fluid 
portion of the balls, as proved by the porousness and holes 
found when the balls were split open. The fed balls were the 
most dense in the middle ; the most porous part of them being 
about midway between the shell and centre, as seen in the cut. 
The density of some of the fed balls at the centre was remark- 
able, and was a clear explanation of the cause of their variation 
in weight. This centre density was, no doubt, mainly caused 
by the pressure exerted by the feeding-rod, and the occasional 
supplying of the feeding-heads with hot iron. When feeding 
a casting, the feeding-rod at the latter end is more or less 
enlarged, caused by molten metal sticking to it. This may be 
knocked off, or a new rod used ; but, whichever way is used, 
there will exist variations in the manipulations of feeding, suffi- 
cient to cause the dissimilarity in weights seen. It seems 
reasonable to assert that a thick feeding-rod should exert more 
of a pressure and disturbance than a thinner rod, and that, the 
smaller the ball, the more effect could be produced. 

In moulding these balls, I was very careful in all the manip- 
ulations performed. The ramming, venting, drawing of the 
pattern, and gating were as near alike as study and care could 
make them. In feeding, attention was given to the procuring 
of solid castings. The lOf" ball would occupy from fifty to 
sixty minutes to be fed solid ; and, although these largest balls 
show about the lowest percentage in shrinkage, they no doubt 
give the nearest approximation that it would be practical to 
assign to shrinkage in the general run of castings, which, if 
estimated at one pound for every hundred pounds of casting^ 
would not be far out of the way. 



8 



SOUND CASTING. 



While it is essential that a casting should be fed solid, to be 
strong, the temperature of the iron used is also a factor for 
consideration. 

Some time ago I made the assertion, that metal poured at a 
dull heat would produce the strongest iron (an opinion then held 
by others beside the writer) . Having made this assertion, there 
could be no one more anxious than m^'self to have seen this 
kept a maintained fact. Mr. Gardiner, foreman of Pratt & 
Whitney's foundry at Hartford, Conn., has informed me, that, 




Fig. 6. — Testing-machine 



through experiments which he had made with test-bars poured 
dull and poured hot, he found the hot-poured bars the strongest. 
Thinking that I might be in error, from the fact that the tests 
I had made were but few and crudely performed (as can be 
seen from the description then given), I desired to give the 
question another and a more thorough test. Having no testing- 
machine, I devised the simple affair shown in Fig. 6 for the 
purpose of dealing with the subject. In using this machine, 
bars 1" square X 24" long were tested. In all tests, the hot- 
poured bars stood the greatest load. To make sure that my 
machine was working correctly, and to know what the results 



SOUND CASTING. 9 

would be, were heavier bars used thau 1" square, I had some 
patterns made, measuring 4|^", 2^", and \\" square by 2-4" 
long. When cast they were taken into the machine-shop, 
and accurately planed up to the respective sizes, 4", 3^", 2", and 
1" square. The following table shows the strength of the duU- 
and hot-poured bars, as found by tests taken by an Olsen 
machine at the Otis Steel Works, Cleveland, O. : — 



Sbction of Bars 
24" Long. 




Breakino 
Load. 


Section of Baes 
24" Long. 




BEEAKINti 

Load. 


4" square. 
4" 

3i" « 
3i" " 

2" 

2" «« 

2" 
2" 


Hot . . 
Dull. . 

Hot . . 
Dull. . 

Hot . . 
Dull. . 

Hot . . 
Dull. . 


56,130 
49,830 

38,470 
36,960 

7,560 
6,340 

8,650 
6,810 


2" square. 
2" 

1" 
1" 

1" 

1" " 


Hot . . 

Dull. . 

Hot . . 
Dull. . 

Hot . . 
Dull. . 


9,520 
6,400 

1,050 
1,020 

1,130 
960 



The above bars all showed a perfect fracture, with the excep- 
tion of the 3^" dull bar, which showed a honeycombed centre. 
These 3\" bars were intended for 4" : but as soon as the skin 
was broken when planing the dull bar, blow-holes were seen ; 
and, thinking that were the bar planed down they might disap- 
pear, the machinist was instructed to make the bars 3^' square. 
As every cut revealed fresh holes, it was found no cleaner at 
3J" than at the 4" square. 

These blow-holes were readily accounted for by the fact that 
the iron with which this bar was poured was so dull that it 
would hardly flow out of the ladle. It was purposely so poured 
in order to learn how it would stand for strength. The result 
as shown will no doubt be a surprise to many, as it was to me ; 
for, although this bar showed such a bad fracture, we see that 



10 SOUND CASTING. 

it stood within 1,510 pounds as much as the hot bar, whose 
fracture was perfect like all the others. It might be well 
to state that these test-bars were cast vertical, in order to 
insure their being sound and clean. There would be two bars 
of the same size moulded ; and after one was poured with the 
hot metal direct from the cupola, the ladle would be allowed 
to stand until the balance of the metal was just dull enough to 
insure that the casting should run up full and square. I have 
omitted the mixtures of which the respective bars were made, 
for the reason that a knowledge of them would be of no assist- 
ance in determining the end sought. 

Since making the above tests, it occurred to the writer, that 
in his first experiments, which showed dull iron to make the 
strongest bars (seen in vol. i. p. 233), the result was mainly 
due to the fact of the first test-bars being poured with metal 
which was, as stated, agitated with wrought-iron rods. 

The above bars were all poured with iron which was not in 
any way agitated, the metal being left to cool oft naturally. 
Therefore the first test may not be in any error, and but simply 
go to show, that, when practical, it is beneficial to agitate hot 
metal with wrought-iron rods. 

Before closing, I would respectfully call attention to the 
machine shown in Fig. 6, and at left of Fig. 4. 

This machine I invented for the purpose of aiding me to 
determine the strength of the V square bars above mentioned. 
As some such machine would be found very useful to many, I 
studied to make it as presentable as possible. The weight of 
the whole machine is only about eighty pounds ; and any one 
who may choose to give it a trial would, I think, be pleased with 
its workings, especially in view of the amount it would cost to 
make one (which should not exceed six dollars) . The machine 
is best adapted for testing foundry mixtures of iron, and new 
brands of pig-iron. As seen, it will record the three essential 
points which foundrymen ought to know about their iron : — 



SOUND CASTING. 11 

The first is the contraction of the iron ; 

The second, its deflection; 

The third, its strength. 

In obtaining the contraction, the pattern A^ from which the 
test-bars are to be made, should be just the length of the dis- 
tance between the standpoints BB. Then, when the bars are 
cast, all that is necessary after one is set in place is to keep 
it tight to one end, and the space at the other will give the 
contraction. 

For obtaining the deflection, a piece at F has a slot through 
which a thumb set-screw binds it against the stand H. Before 
commencing to screw down upon the bar A, the piece F is set 
down upon the ratchet-wheel K; and, being secured by means 
of the thumb-screw above mentioned, it will, of course, remain 
stationai'y. Then, when the bar A breaks, its deflection can be 
told by the space between F and the top of the ratchet-wheel. 
The two arms which F is seen to have are for the purpose of 
holding a small 2" iron rule, divided into fifty or a hundred 
parts ; and there are slots in the arms for the purpose of hold- 
ing the rule. 

To obtain the strength, the load is applied by means of the 
screw E, which is 1^", having nine threads to the inch. In 
the bottom of the screw, there is a steel pin having a bear- 
ing-surface of about \" . The ratchet-wheel K is, of course, 
secured to the screw E, and a part of the screw projects up 
above it so as to leave a pin for the ratchet-lever D to work 
up on. The lever D is provided with a ratchet-pawl, so that 
the operator can stand in the same place while working the 
screw. Behind the pawl is a spring so as to force it into the 
teeth of the ratchet. At /S is a sliding band, which, when 
pulled back, releases the hold of the spring upon the pawl, 
thereby allowing the ratchet-wheel, or screw, to be turned back 
without removing the lever Z>. At the end of the lever is a 
common twenty-fi^'e-cent spring-balance scale. Across its face, 



12 SOUND CASTING. 

at R^ is fitted a thin piece of brass or copper plate. A wire is 
inserted in a small hole which is drilled through the little pin 
of the balance which indicates the pounds : this wire projects 
out from this pin upon each side alike. Then, when pulling 
the balance, this wire squarely pushes up the registering-plate i?, 
so that, when the piece to be tested breaks, the plate will regis- 
ter the load. 

The length of this lever, from the centre of the screw to the 
point from which the balance pulls, is 18". The reason for 
having the scales lying in the semicircular frame P is simply 
to insure that the pulling is always done in the same direction. 
The scale used with this is the twenty-four-pounds scale ; and a 
load of twelve hundred pounds (which is about the strength of 
ordinary cast-iron when tested in such sized bars as shown), 
exerted upon a bar to be broken, will show but about twelve 
pounds upon the scale. 

In using this machine, were it desired to graduate the scale 
so as to know in actual pounds what load was being applied, 
all that is necessary is to set the machine upon some rolling 
platform -scale which will weigh about two thousand pounds. 
After the machine is bolted or clamped to the lower frame of the 
scales, and the weight of the machine noted, then turn down 
the screw, and, as the beam of the platform-scale rises, mark 
off upon the face of the spring-balance at every hundred a 
straight mark. Then, after going as high as is desired, the 
hundreds can be subdivided if preferred. Now, I know that 
many will object to the use of the screw as a feature of this 
machine. The machine is certainly one that could not be used 
as a standard, but it will answer to let a shop know the relative 
strength of its irons. If the screw is an easy fit,, kept clean 
and well lubricated, the machine should, for such a cheap 
wrinkle, give good approximate results. At least, the deflec- 
tion and contraction are two things which could be counted upon 
as positive. 



SOUND CASTING. 13 

When making the test-bars, they should be run by means of 
skimming-gates ; and in moulding them, care must be exercised 
in order to have them come all alike. The bars I used were 
made in a flask which had a flat iron bar mortised into each end 
of the nowel, just as far apart as the pattern is long. By this 
means the moulds could not be lengthened through any rapping 
of the pattern. 

, To know the strength of iron, and the amount which it will 
contract^ are certainly points of value in aiding to make strong, 
reliable castings ; and while it is often impossible to know 
whether a casting is sound, until it is broken, we may, through 
a knowledge of the mode adopted in making it, often be guided 
in placing confidence as to the strength and soundness of the 
casting produced. 

It should not be always looked upon as the culmination of 
skill to make a casting " peel," and be smooth. Many castings 
are more easily produced smooth than sound, and the skill and 
experience generally required to make sound castings i^ill often 
rank far above that required to make them smooth. 



14 DEFECTS IN STRUCTURAL CASTINGS. 



DEFECTS IN STRUCTURAL CASTINGS. 



[Read by the author before the Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland, 
July 10, 1883.] 

The value of sound castings in structural work is best com- 
prehended by those who have suffered losses through their 
defects. 

Formulas and tables upon the limit of elasticity, compression, 
and tensile strength of cast-iron, might often be called /ac^o as 
of faith. For, did the mechanical engineer know how low his 
factor of safety is often brought through defectiveness, he 
could not help acknowledging that many massive structures 
are built more by faith than by facts; and while there arfe a 
great number of well-ascertained facts and definite laws for the 
guidance of those engaged in construction, there are often de- 
fects, caused through ill manipulation and material, that would 
seem to make structural formulas and tables but a starting-point 
for guesswo7'k. In the investigation of cast-iron structural or 
machine accidents, it is rarely the case that the work is found 
imperfect through its design. The verdict generally given is 
defective material or poor workmanship. 

Castings for structural and machine building, where an injury 
to them would be more or less apt to cause the loss of life and 
property, are, as a class, what engineers are required to deal 
with, and often stake their reputation and welfare upon. As 
a chain is no stronger than its weakest link, so is a casting no 
stronger than its weakest defect. Almost every casting made 
is weaker in some parts than in others ; not necessarily so 
through design, but often through causes that in some cases 



DEFECTS IN STRUCTURAL CASTIXOS. 15 

might be avoided through the aid of practical experience and 
skill. 

Heretofore foundries have generally been looked upon as 
nothing but dnminng-holes for blocklieads, dirt, and pig-iron. 
There is no question but that we have them all. But I can 
safely assert that in many of them there is labor that is worthy 
of the mature study of our brightest engineers. 

Because work is dirty, it is no sign that a thick and muddy 
brain could do it, or that there is no field for thought or study. 

The defects in castings are due to many causes, some of 
which are generated outside, as well as upon the inside, of 
foundry walls. Those outside could be classed under the head 
of design and competition; inside, under the head of manipula- 
tions of mould and metal. 

Competition is often detrimental to the production of good 
structural castings, for the simple reason that the work is taken 
too cheap, thereby not allowing the lowest bidder enough mar- 
gin to spend for good material and labor. In this might be 
seeu one of the reasons why the engineer should familiarize 
himself with the workings of a foundrj', in order that he may 
be able to correctly judge what different classes of castings are 
worth in dollars and cents to manufacture. Structural castings 
cheaply bought are often cheaply made, and may answer for a 
time ; but their steady employment will sooner or later result 
in some disaster. With reference to the designing of structural 
castings, the draughtsman's and pattern-maker's work is often 
a large factor in the procuring of clean and sound castings. 
This subject can be better understood and taken up by the fol- 
lowing discussion of mould and metal. Every structural cast- 
ing is apt to contain some dirt. This dirt is generated from the 
mould's surfaces and the metal's impurities. The amount of 
dirt a filling-mould will collect depends mainly upon three things : 
the first being the moulder's ability properly to make a mould; 
the second, the shape and size of a moxdd ; third, the style and 



16 DEFECTS IN STFMCTURAi. CASTINGS. 

manner in which the mould is poured and gated. The injury or 
weakness that dirt will cause to a casting depends upon its bulk, 
and where it is lodged. There are some castings in which cer- 
tain portions can contain more or less dirt, and still not mate- 
rially impair their strength for the purpose intended. The best 
judge of such defects should be the engineer himself. Now, 
if this be the fact, it seems but a step farther for the engineer 
to acquaint himself with the practical moulding of any special 
job, and thereby cause arrangements to be provided, whereby 
the moulder could ofteo be assisted in having receptacles or 
parts that would catch and hold the dirt in such places that 
little or no injury could result therefrom. 

It would be an impossibility to here give any data that could 
be used as a standard for the procuring of every casting clean 
and sound, as what might work well in one case would seldom 
do for another. 

However, there are two or three points, that, if explained, 
would show principles that might often be applied to greatly 
assist in the cleanliness of castings, and also give to the novice 
an idea of means used for collecting the impurities of the metal 
before it enters the mould. In pouring a mould, the tendency 
of all dirt, or material, whose specific gravity is lighter than the 
iron used, is to float or rise toward the surface of the metal. 
This fact is often taken advantage of by what foundrymen call 
a skimming-gate. To fully show its form and principle, the 
sketch (Fig. 7) is given. At A is what is commonly called a 
basin ; into this the iron is poured, and the basin filled as soon 
as possible. From A the metal flows through the channel X to 
jB, from B to E ; from E it is carried downward, and flows into 
the mould as represented by the arrow at K. 

Now, it is very evident, that, by having the basin A kept full, 
the metal in the riser F should be about on a level with that 
in the basin. 

The iron that runs into the mould being taken from the bot- 



DEFECTS IN STRUCTURAL CASTINGS. 



17 



torn of the liquid metal, as represented at E^ it must necessarily 
be free of impurities that, by reason of gravity, have risen to 
the surface, as sliown at D and S. While this explanation 
is only to give an idea of the principle, it might be well to state 




Fig. 7. 

that the principle is used in a variety of forms, made to suit 
different moulds and conditions. The value of skimming-gates 
is often lost through the moulder's not using judgment in mak- 
ing the gates or runners 5, F, and E^ having a proper relation 



18 DEFECTS IN STRUCTURAL CASTINGS. 

to each other, i'' should always be the largest, in order to afford 
room for the dirt to rise. B should be larger than that shown 
below E. If E were larger than B, it would be a difficult matter 
to keep the dirt from passing into the mould ; for the simple 
reason that E would take iron faster than B, thereby not allow- 
ing the dirt-riser heads D and F to be kept full, which must be 
done in order to collect and hold the impurities as shown. 
Keeping the riser F full is not always a guaranty that the 
impurities are being collected : the flow of metal may be too 
fast to give the impurities a chance to be held. A point to 
be kept in view is, the longer that metal can be practically 
maintained in F and D, before passing into the mould, the more 
purified it should be. In this cut shown, the E If" gate would 
be better if it were not so nearly under the dirt-riser F, as 
shown. The farther away E can practically be carried from F, 
the more effective will such a skimming-gate be in catching and 
holding the dirt. 

The gates or runners, B, F, and E, are supposed to be round ; 
and the sizes shown represent about what relation such skim- 
ming-gates should bear to each other. The sketch marked 
" whirl " shows one of the wrinkles sometimes used. The con-, 
nection D, if cut from B to F in the manner shown, will cause 
the metal to whirl in F, thereby assisting the dirt or impurities 
to rise up, as shown at S. The greater the whirl, the better 
the results. Another plan, sometimes practised to catch and 
hold impurities from going into a mould, is as shown at N. 
This is commonly called a skimming-core : it is built or set into 
the main basin, from 2" to 6" lower than the reservoir's bottom, 
PP; below this core is made a basin, as shown at X; when 
this basin is filled with metal, the ladle's dirt is held as shown 
at V, and the clean iron flows through at X. The amount of 
dirt or impurities that a well-contrived skimming-gate or basin 
will gather and keep from going into a casting is often remark- 
able. The section marked " Direct " shows the method practised 



DEFECTS IN STRUCTURAL CASTINGS. 10 

in ordinarily gated moulds, in which there is nothing to prevent 
the dirt or impurities from passing into the mould, except what 
is held up by keeping the basin full of metal while pouring, i 
should like to here treat upon other forms of gates and runners 
in their relation to special forms of castings ; but as my time 
to prepare even what I have was very short, I shall have to 
dispense with much that should be brought out in order 
to fully discuss such a subject as the title implies. It is not 
intended here to convey the impression, that, by having a well- 
planned skimming-gate, the casting is sure to be free from de- 
fects. In some cases, where the making of the mould is in the 
hands of a first-class moulder, it might be so ; but, as a general 
thing, the skimming-gate is but a small factor. About all that 
can be said of it is, that it aids in collecting the impurities of 
iron before it passes into the mould. The engineer has other im- 
perfections that he often needs to be more watchful of than the 
impurities of the iron ; consisting of scabs, blow-holes, cold-shuts, 
misplaced cores, improper feeding, etc. Any one of these could 
form a hidden defect that would reduce a casting to one-twelfth 
of what should be its ultimate working strength, and maybe 
greatly exceed that, going from twelfths to twentieths. Such 
defects cannot be bridled with mathematics in any form : they 
are infinite, treacherous, and beyond human reason to define. A 
scab is part of the mould-surface flaked off, the depth of which 
varies from ■^" up to 6" in thickness. When a scab is over 1" 
in thickness, there will be generally more or less visible blowing. 
Sometimes this mould or casting blowing will become so violent 
as to tear a mould all to pieces, thereby making the exact form 
of the intended casting unrecognizable. Such defects as this 
will, as a general thing, leave but little doubt as to the casting's 
future use ; they, being too apparent to deceive, must necessarily 
be introduced to the scrap-pile. When a mould scabs, the sand 
mingles with the iron ; some of it may be visible, while some 
may not ; the sand being specifically lighter than iron, il 



20 DEFECTS IN STRUCTURAL CASTINGS. 

naturally rises until stopped by contact with cores or the mould's 
surfaces, etc. This is a point in designing castings, that should 
be remembered ; as, with this in mind, the sections that are 
liable to confine or catch dirt might often be macZe thicker than 
the design would othertvise call for, thereby alloioivg for a prob- 
able reduction in strength. 

To further convey this idea, I would call attention to the 
sketch of a column section. As a general thing, — in fact, 
I never saw or heard differently, — columns are wanted to be of 
an even thickness all around. I remember, some twenty-two 
years back, inspectors testing a lot of columns (they might 
have been pipes ; but the principle involved is the same).^ The 
shop where this inspection or testing occurred was at the Port- 
land Locomotive Company's foundry, Portland, Me. In the 
testing of these castings, two rails were placed parallel ; and, 
after being levelled, the castings were raised, one at a time, 
and set upon them. The inspectors would then rotate them 
about one-half their circumference ; and, after coming to a 
stand, they would then be allowed to find their own centre of 
gravity. B}' this process, any unevenness of thickness was 
quickly detected ; and if any of the castings, in revolving to 
their centre of gravity, went faster than the allowed speed, they 
were condemned. 

To the best of my memory, the castings were made in green 
sand, and cast horizontally. Now, the question in my mind is, 
"Was not the test somewhat in error? In the horizontal casting 
of any cylindrical-shaped mould, the cope, or top part of the 
casting, cannot be as sound as the sides or bottom, for the rea- 
son that it will be more porous, and contain more dirt than any 
other portion of the casting. 



' Mr. A. C. Getchell stated, during the very interesting discussion which followed 
the reading of the author's paper, that, being in Portland when the tests were made, he 
reaiembered that the columns or pipes referred to as tested at the Portland Locomotive 
Works were pipes cast horizontally, and that about one-third of them were sondemncd. 



DEFECTS IN STRUCTURAL CASTINGS. ^1 

I think it is a safe assertion to make, that if a horizontally 
east pipe or column, that was found to stay in equilibrium at 
any point when being tested upon rails, were given an even 
internal tension, or end compression strain, until it would burst 
or rupture, the point of first fracture would be the cope part of 
the casting. 

I should like to hear of such tests being made ; for I do think 
it .would result in opening the minds of many to an important 
factor in the casting of structural work, which is as follows : 
Where it is reasonable to expect dirt or porousness in castings, 
make that section thicker or heavier than the design would other- 
ivise call for, in order to counterbalance the toeakening effect 
caused through the mingling of dirt or impurities with the iron. 

As to how much thicker the cope section of pipes or columns 
should be than the sides and bottom, this would be rather a dif- 
ficult question to answer ; as it would greatly depend upon the 
combination of lengths, diameters, and thicknesses, and also 
facilities for moulding. However, I would say, that, with a 
pipe or column 12" diameter, f" thick, and fourteen feet long, 
one-quarter of its thickness added to the cope, as represented 
by the dotted line H in the column-section cut, would then 
not always be a guaranty of its holding \ts own in a testing- 
machine. 

In structural castings, the question of proportion, contraction, 
and quality of metals, contains three very important elements 
til at require careful consideration. But as my limited time 
would not allow me to now do justice to the discussion of them, 
I will close with the remark, that to figure for strength in cast- 
ings is one thing : to know if you have obtained it, is quite 
another. The former is the work of rules and tables : the latter 
is only assisted by observation, investigation, and practical 
experience. 

P.S. Shrinkage occurs when metal is liquid; contraction^ 
when it is cooling off in a solid state. * 



PROGRESS m MOULDING. 



NOVELTIES IN FOUNDRY PRACTICE. 

In the Patent-Office buildings at Washington, are many nov- 
elties, some good and some of very little value. Many of them 
are appliances for mechanical trades, and have been heralded 
before the public. In this line, the moulder's trade has not been 
very prominent ; whereby the public have been led to believe 
that, to do moulding, no inventive talent was required. 

There are many tools in a foundr}^ that at one time were just 
as patentable, and, in fact, far more so, than other things that 
have been patented. One reason why foundry novelties are 
not patented to any extent is because it would not pay. The 
greatest novelties in foundry practice are generally got up for 
some special job, which, perhaps, is not made in a half-dozen 
foundries in the United States, and even those could generally 
invent other ways to accomplish the end if they desired. Even 
if a man has something novel, that every foundry could use, he 
could seldom make it pay to attempt its introduction : all would 
look, but few would buy. They would look to steal the idea, 
from which, in many cases, ihey could get up something else 
to answer their purpose. 

When a moulder gets up a new tool or rigging, he seldom 
thinks of getting it patented. There are some things in foun- 
dries that require the highest inventive qualities to originate ; 
and it is wrong to suppose, that, because the foundry is not 
extensively represented in the Patent Office, no invention is 
required there. If the getting-up of something never before 
known is patentable, then there are foundry men who every 
year of their lives could be applicants for patent honors. 

22 



NOVELTIES IN FOUNDRY PRACTICE. 2S 

There are many who patent things which eventually they would 
be glad to give away, in view of their experience at a later 
date. It is one thing to '"'•get wp a patent^'' but quite another to 
get it introduced, and have it earn money for the inventor : at 
least, that was the author's experience when he was new at this 
patent business. 

Every tool or rigging now used in a foundry was at one time 
more or less of a novelty. Many moulders seem to have the idea 
that the trade was originated as they found it, and that all that is 
required of them is to do as they see others do. The habits and 
customs of the shop in which they learned their trade are theirs : 
they get to think that there is only one way that a job can be 
done, and that is the way they were taught. What a deplor- 
able condition the moulder's trade would be in, were there no 
exceptions to this rule ! 

Once in a while we come across men who are original. They 
have, to our views, odd ways of working ; and, if we are fortu- 
nate enough to be their shopmates for some years, we will often 
see them adopt new modes of working. Such a man cares 
nothing for what he was taught to do : to him it is only a step- 
ping-stone. Once under wa}', he begins to forget what he was 
taught to do, a,nd commences to do that which he learns by his 
own experience and study. 

" What is that John is getting up now? " says some one. 

" Oh ! something to draw the boss's attention," replies some 
jealous sore-head. 

Almost every advancement in a foundry is met with more or 
less ridicule. A progressive moulder is not always welcomed, 
but is often a target for abuse, especially when he starts in a 
new shop. It is astonishing how afraid some are of new-com- 
ers showing or introducing any novelty into a shop : no matter 
whether it is original or borrowed, if it is a novelty- to them, 
they will try to ride it down. It is not onl}- the men, but often 
the foreman as well, that will deride the introduction of any 
new or strange feature. 



24 NOVELTIES IN FOUNDRY PRACTICE. 

A moulder, in travelling to sec and learn, may go through a 
dozen shops, and see nothing very new or strange in them. He 
may see different classes of work made, but, for all that, see 
nothing novel to him in the way it is made. It will seem as if 
one master taught them all. When first starting to work at the 
trade, we must be taught by others ; but, should we wish to be- 
come leaders, we must keep it in mind that what we see done 
was not always so done, but was the result of the inventive 
and thinking powers of many men. That which others have 
given to us must be improved upon. Some one says we have 
nothing to accomplish; it has all been done. If this were so, 
then, to the writer's mind, the uncertainty that is attached to the 
making of good castings woidd be at an end. The novelties 
of the past have mainly been in the way of the introduction of 
appliances for making and forming moulds. The novelties of 
the future shoidd be for the purpose of lessening the present un- 
certainty in procuring good castings. 

It would be a hard matter for a designer to make a pattern 
that could not be moulded by some one. If we look through 
a machine-shop, we can see castings of almost every conceivable 
form. These were made by some moulder ; but how many 
times some of them had to be moulded, in order to produce the 
one seen, is where the trouble comes in. Bad castings are often 
caused by the improper handling of material and tools, the 
proof of this being that the same man will often bring forth 
good and bad castings by the use of the same tools and mate- 
rial. 

To rightly handle materials and tools, is not to be learned by 
watching others. You must have practice, coupled with intelli- 
gent study, if you succeed. To intelligently study any subject, 
it is always a great assistance to know what others think and 
know of it. To accomplish this exchange of ideas, there has 
lately grown up the novelty of foundry literature. There are 
men who scoff at this, who will before long see their error, or 
be made to feel it, by the advancement of others over them. 



NOVELTIES IN FOUNDRY PRACTICE. 25 

There is a large field for the expansion of foundry literature, 
and whoever interests himself in it cannot but be benefited by it. 
The interest in this line is rapidly growing, being taken hold 
of by the best mecliauics and workmen. The men that have 
originated the most novelties in foundry practice have been 
generally forced to do so through necessity. In out-of-the-way 
foundries, can often be found more real novelties than in many 
of" our city shops. Foundries that are far away from others 
cannot borrow or steal ideas : they are forced to use their own 
brains. There are seldom two men that plan the same, there- 
fore when moulders plan there must needs be variet3\ 

There are few moulders but would be able to improve or add 
something to our trade, if they would only make up their minds 
to make it a study. We should all try to make the trade better 
than we found it, and remember that the present attainments 
of our trade only come to exist through progressive thought 
and study. 



26 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MOULDING. 



MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN 
MOULDING. 

The art of moulding demands both physical and mental 
labor, one being as necessary as the other. No one can become 
a good, reliable, expert workman at the business, unless he is 
well endowed both physically and mentally. Physical endow- 
ment does not imply that the man shall be an athlete, or possess 
the strength of a giant. Good health and a sound body are all 
that are required in this respect. A man cannot do justice to 
his mental qualities unless he is well physically. 

The physical qualities of a man — strength, endurance, dex- 
terity — may be readily tested ; but mental qualities are not so 
easily put to the test. Circumstances must bring a man to face 
some problem requiring thought and study, before he can de- 
monstrate his possession of the necessary qualities. Working 
at the trade of a moulder is well calculated to develop one's 
ph3'sical powers, even in spite of himself; but whether his 
mental qualities are proportionately developed, will depend 
entirely upon his disposition to cultivate them. It may be pos- 
sible to drive the moulder into working hard with his hands, 
but it is impossible to drive him into studying and thinking of 
his work. It might be better if this were possible. 

Bad castings are generally the result of mental errors. The 
hands cannot make a move towards making a mould, except they 
are guided by the mind; and yet but little attention is paid to 
the all-important subject of learning to think correctly. It is a 
good thing to be physically strong, but it is often a better thing 
to be mentally strong. 

If a man were to keep his arms tied up in a sling for six 
months, and then loose and try to use them, he would find them 
weaker than before. Darwin says that the disuse of a member 



MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MOULDING. 2( 

of the body will in a few generations cause its disappearance. 
Constant reasonable use develops the members of the body. 
How many can testify to a similar development of the mind by 
study ? 

Many saj' they are not paid to think. Most workmen are not 
paid as well as they would be if they thought more and better 
Mental qualities are, probably, to a great extent inherited ; but 
they are susceptible of cultivation, and to almost any extent. 

The greatest mechanical masters have become such by think- 
ing for themselves, and by studying others' mishaps, as well as 
their own. 

A moulder may say, "What can I study that will advance me 
mentally? " Almost every had result in making castings can he 
taken as a lesson. Some of the lessons will be easy, others 
hard, but all important. In studying them, it may be neces- 
sary to visit libraries, consult the chemist, or ask questions of 
those who know more than we do. It may lead us to do things 
that others will consider foolish. Many of our greatest mechan- 
ical achievements spring from just such "foolish" things. 
An ambitious moulder can always find abundant material for 
study, not only in his own mistakes and poor success, but in 
those of others. Many seem to learn only by their own blun- 
ders, while others learn equally from the blunders of others. 
If we learn only through our own experience, our progress will 
be slow, and our life full of blunders. 

No mechanic should depend on his physical abilities. It is 
only by develoj)ing his mental qualities., that he can hope for sxic- 
cess. The early morning is unquestionably the best time for 
the workingman to study : his mind is then clear, and his 
thoughts will not be handicapped with the day's doings. An 
hour or two spent in this way every day will show astonishing 
results in the course of a year. If the morning cannot be 
devoted to this, then devote the evenings ; but, in any case, 
devote an hour or two each day to studying and reading up in 
the line of your business. 



28 PERFECTION IN MOULDING 



PERFECTION IN MOULDING. 

Perfection in moulding can only be reached through rigid 
attention to trijles. There is nothing grand, or, mechanically 
speaking, great, about making a mould. Close attentioyi to 
small things, a little delicate hand-work here and there, with the 
exercise of good judgment, is all there is of it. If the end is 
successfully reached, it demonstrates that the necessary skill, 
judgment, and care controlled the manipulations. Whenever 
the result is bad, the intelligent moulder can generally trace it 
to some trifle neglected. Trifles neglected leave chances to he 
taken, which is where luck comes in. Trusting to luck is like a 
lottery : you may win, but the chances are you will lose. 

There are often more castings lost through the neglect of 
trifles, than through ignorance, or the want of judgment. A 
large number of moulders of all classes take chances, and when 
they succeed it can be said that it is more good luck than good 
management. It is not alwaj's the poor mechanic that loses 
the most castings. There can be found plenty of first-class 
mechanics, having a large experience, who cannot be called 
reliable moulders. Their castings are generally lost through 
simple negligence, or in their being too willing to take chances. 
A careful moulder will always give a doubt the preference. If 
he is not sure, or feels that any thing is not safe, he will, if 
possible, secure it beyond question. 

In moulding, there are possibilities of bad results that one 
thoughtful moulder may not foresee, which another one would. 
Some moulders have to thank experience dearly bought for all 
their good results, while with others experience has but little tu 



PERFECTION IN MOULDING. 29 

do with results. A good, careful judgment is the secret of 
their success. 

There may be said to be two classes of trifles, — the known 
and the unknown. When a casting is lost through the latter, 
we can often charge it to ignorance, or the want of judgment; 
when through the former, to negligence. 

Whenever there is a new engine or machine to be built, the 
designers and builders make it as perfect as their experience 
and judgment fceach them. They will give great attention to 
the details ; and, when completed, the machine is given a trial. 
The first machine is seldom entirely a success There are 
geierally some little trifling things to be afterwards altered, to 
make it perfect. The designer or builder would not like to be 
told that he was ignorant, or had no mechanical ability, as a 
reason for the first engine or machine being imperfect. None 
of us are perfect : we must all learn by practical experience. 
In the building of new machinery, there is generally allowance 
made for the improvement of trifles. As the builder or de- 
signer requires trials of new work before it can be made perfect, 
so do the foundr}' manager and moulder require the same. 

Progress in foundry practice is being made every day, and 
the uncertainties lessened. Specialties in foundry practice are 
having an influence in bringing about better work. The advan- 
tages of these are numerous. In such shops, the moulder 
generally makes the same job over and over ; and he must be 
a poor mechanic that cannot improve or perfect a single job 
in time. 

Ten years ago, almost every machinery foundry did a great 
deal of jobbing. To-day many of these shops discourage 
jobbing, and have adopted some special class of work, for the 
reason that they generally find more money in the manufacture 
of specialties than in jobbing. As a rule, foundries can nearly 
double their product by having specialties instead of jobbing, 
and with less requirement of skill. In jobbing, the first trial 



30 PERFECTION IN MOULDING. 

must be successful, to make things pay ; while with specialties, 
if there is a miss, there is a chance to remedy the loss in others 
that follow. 

It is not always the moulder that is to blame for his bad 
results. It may be the foreman's or proprietor's misman- 
agement, and the manner in which they control their men. 
Wherever you find a shop in zvhich the men are not under good 
management and control, there you will find the largest percent- 
age of had work. A man, to be foreman of a foundry, should 
not only be practical, but also have the best of judgment. He 
should be able to know what skill and experience any job will 
require ; also, the time it should be made in, and the qualifica- 
tion of all his men. A foreman is very often to blame for the 
bad results, in not knowing the requirements of a job, and in 
giving it to a man that is not qualified. There are hardly two 
foundries managed alike. Oue is run so that men are obliged to 
take chances ; another is run, leaving every thing optional with 
the men ; while, in another, no known chances are allowed to 
be taken. To discuss the reason for this dissimilarity, would be 
out of place. Suflflce it to say that the class of work done may 
be the cause ; but, as a general thing, it is the management that 
is responsible. 

The best managed and controlled foundries are generally the 
ones that manufacture specialties. If foundries keep on drop- 
ping out of jobbing, and taking up specialties, as they now arc 
doing, moulding must be advanced ; as the percentage of bad 
results will be less, and a better quality of castings made. 

Another thing that is helping to advance the moulder's trade 
is the interest which is being taken in foundry literature. By 
this means, moulders can intelligently discuss others' ideas and 
experience of the science of the moulder's art, and thereby be 
better able to arrive at correct conclusions. 

The present demand of foundrymen is for more first-class 
workmen. The foremen are themselves often to blame for their 



PERFECTION IN MOULDING. 31 

scarcity. To have good workmen, there must be good, intelli- 
gent instructors and trainers. The great trouble with foremen 
is, they do not want to be bothered. 

There are apprentices and moulders having the ability, that 
wish to be advanced ; and with proper discipline they will make 
good workmen, and be a help in getting rid of much of the 
uncertainty that is so largely attached to the present making of 
good castings. 



LOAM AND DRY SAND MOULDING. 



GEOMETRY IN THE FOUNDRY. 

In nearly all trades, some knowledge of geometry is required. 
For the moulder, no one seems to have written up that which is 
applicable to his trade. Some may wonder what moulders want 
geometry for ; and think, if we understand the use of shovel 
and rammer, it is all we need. This, in many cases, may be 
true. But often a knowledge of geometry can be turned to as 
good an account in our trade as in others. It is as essential 
that many moulders should understand geometry, as it is that 
pattern-makers should do so. The way it now is, the pattern- 
maker generally does our geometry for us ; and we, through our 
ignorance, are forced to submit to other tradesmen, to our own 
detriment. In green-sand, as well as in loam work, moulders 
are often obliged to call the pattern-maker to explain or to 
mark out work that requires geometrical knowledge. Moulds 
are often made requiring the dividing of circles, or marking off 
of square, oblong, and other shapes ; locating of flanges, lugs, 
or sections of patterns, etc. The lack of geometrical knowl- 
edge is often woful. I remember a case where a moulder was 
sent to bring a pair of trammels, set to the proper length, iu 
order to describe a circle : upon returning with a pattern seg- 
ment, when questioned, he said the pattern-maker was absent, 
and, as the segment was upon his bench, he thought that was 
the thing wanted. 

To describe a circle is a simple affair. To divide one into 

any number of equal parts, is where a knowledge of geometry 

is found useful. The numV)er of parts into which a circle can 

be most readily divided is six ; because the distance from the 

32 



GEOMETRY IN THE FOUNDRY. 



33 



ceutre of any circle to its circumference, as B A, Fig. 8, will 
divide the circumference into six equal parts F, D, A, P, E, 
and S. To divide the circumference into three, erase every 
other one of the six points. To divide it into tw^elve equally, 
divide each of the six parts. To divide it into four parts, 
describe a line through the centre, as KO, Fig. 9. From 
the points where KO intersects the circumference, with tram- 
mels or dividers set at more than two-thirds the diameter, 
describe ares cutting each other, as at N. A line then drawn 
from N through the centre divides the circle into four parts. 





Fig. 8. Fig. 9. 

For eight parts, bisect each of the four. Many divide the circle 
into four parts by the use of a square and straight-edge, as shown 
at Fig. 12, instead of by describing the arcs as at N, Fig. 9. 

The division of circles inio odd or even equal sections can 
be done as follows. At H and 7?, Fig. 10, the radius, or one- 
sixth of the circumference, is set off. This arc is then divided, 
by trial, into the same number of sections into which it is 
desired to divide the whole circle. AA^ith the trammels or 
dividers set to the chord of six of the divided arc points, shown 
in the arc H and i?, space off the circumference. This will 
divide the circumference, or circle, into the same number of 
sections as in the arc, which in arc H and R is seven. Should 
it fail to do so, the fault is yours. It must be remembered, 



34 



GEOMETRY IN THE FOUNDRY. 



that to exactly divide the circumference requires very fine 
manipulatiou. There are but few men that can go around the 
circle twice, and come out exactly alike. 

Chords one-ninth, one-tenth, and one-eleventh are simply 
shown to further illustrate the rule. To divide the circle into 
fifths, the arc is divided into five ; and, in order to have the 




i s 

Fig. 10. 

six points, one is added to the arc's length, as shown. If by 
this rule the circle were to be divided into four equal sections, 
the radius arc would be divided into four sections ; and, in 
order to have the six points, two would be added to the radius 
arc's length. 

For the divisions of circumference iuto small parts for the 



GEOMETRY IN THE FOUNDRY. 



35 



purpose of gear-makiug, etc., rules impl3'iug mathematical cal- 
culations, or tables, are required. The plan here given is sim» 
pie, and such as requires no figures, and can often be used by 
the moulder to good advantage, and as far as I know is original. 
•In loam-moulding, plates are required, that in the hands of 
8onie moulders will be made without any visible shape of pat- 
tern, while others will require almost a full pattern ; and the 
former will often mould up the work almost as quickly as the 




Fig. 11. — Cylinder Ring, 



latter can. There are some loam-moulders who can make any 
number of loam plates and rings, entirely from the drawings, 
and not have a mistake in the lot. To be able to lay out a lot 
of rings and plates, and have them all come right, requires one 
to understand the reading of drawings, and a few of the ele- 
mentary rules of geometry, besides sound judgment. 

In marking out upon a sand-bed for any ring or plate having 
irregular shapes, a centre-line to work from is required, the 



36 



GEOMETRY IN THE FOUNDRY. 



same as the draughtsman requires hi makiug a drawing. The 
cut showing a cylinder ring, Fig. 11, will to many conAx^y ideas 
of laying out that may be useful. The bed being made, the first 
thing done is to drive a centre-stake, M. In this stake is made 
a small hole for the dividers' or trammels' point. Crossing this 
centre-point is marked the centre-line, AB. From this line all 
right-angled lines and measurements are taken. The circular 
lines being described, the next to follow is marking and locating 
the lifting-handles, 2, 3, 4, and 5. This often requires careful 
consideration, in order that they may be placed in the best 
position to insure or assist the mould being balanced when 





Fig. 12 



Fig. 13. 



hoisted up. In locating lifting-handles upon square or round 
plates, the}^ should, as a general thing, be set square with each 
other. This will be better understood by referring to the cuts. 
Figs. 12 and 13. In Fig. 12, the square and straight-edge seen 
show the manner of squaring-off the bed. The straight-edge 
having its edge over the centre, the square is set against it, so 
as to have it lie at right angles from the centre; the lines Z>, 
j^, and X are then described, the line E being only carried as 
far as the length of the square, after which the square and 
straight-edge are removed. The straight-edge then being laid 
alongside of the line E^ the line is carried through to F and E^ 
thereby squaring-off the bed. 



GEOMETRY IN THE FOUNDRY. 3T 

In Fig. 13, the lines OA and PB describe the true square, 
while the handles 1, 2, .", and 4 are out of square. The objec- 
tion to such random making of handles is, they will not come 
plumb under the lifting-cross, which is usually made square ; 
also, handles thus placed upon rings, square or round plates, 
do not make them uniformly carry their load, thereby giving 
them a chance to spring, and cause the mould to crack. Some 
may say that they are often compelled to locate handles out of 
square, to make them balance their load. This may be true in 
some cases ; but when possible, instead of distorting the square, 
ihe centre-point should be moved to where the best judgment 
points out will be the mould's balancing centre. 

To illustrate this idea, instead of having the cylinder-ring 
shown, p. 35, squared from the centre, square it from T. This, 
while it does not distort the square of the handles, will bring 
the balancing point wherever desired. 

Sometimes plates are required oblong. This does not always 
call for the handles to be set oblong. If necessary, handles 
can be set square upon an oblong plate as well as upon a round 
or square one, as long as the lines are at right angles to each 
other ; coming closer towards the centre does not alter the 
square. Of course, it is not here advocated to set handles 
square, at the sacrifice of oblong plates being sprung when their 
load comes upon them. The thing to be understood is, ivhat is 
lest, and then to be able to do it. 

Improperly placed handles have been the cause of much 
trouble in adjusting and balancing moulds, and have caused 
many moulds to crack. This fault, and othoi- faults, are not 
so much from carelessness as from the want of a little geomet- 
rical knowledge. There are but few loam-moulders, who, from 
a drawing, are able to order their sweeps, etc. , and make the 
jobs required. Our trade demands something higher than loam- 
daubing and shovelling sand, and lie who tries for the highest 
cannot but find himself benefited. 



38 MAKING CYLINDERS AND CASTINGS TO FINISH. 



MAKING CYLINDERS AND CASTINGS TO 
FINISH. 

Steam cylinders are often complicated and difficult to mould, 
and when made they must be No, 1 eastings. A flaw that 
would not injure many other machinery castings will condemn 
a cylinder. A c^^linder casting may look perfect, without a 
visible flaw or dirt-spot, before boring or cutting into it ; and 
yet when finished there may be flaws found that will send it to 
the scrap-heap. Experience has taught the author to be rather 
shy of extraordinarily smooth-skinned cylinders. To be able to 
make a cylinder with such a surface, and at the same time have 
a perfect, sound, clean casting when finished, is an accomplish- 
ment worthy of praise. The way some get an extra-smootli 
skin is by pouring the cylinders witli what might be called dull 
iron. This is a risky plan to adopt just for the sake of an extra- 
nice skin, as it is likely to sacrifice soundness for the sake of 
smoothness. 

A cylinder should be poured as hot as it practically can be 
tlie hotter it is poured, the cleaner and sounder it should finish. 
Cylinders are often poured with dull iron, for no other reason 
than that the moulder is afraid of his mould ; for, if the iron is 
hot, it may find its way into the vents of the cores, and thereby 
sot the casting blowing, or it may cut or scab his mould. 
Again, he may be afraid of a poor joint, or the mould or cores 
may have been burnt in drying. These are the main reasons 
given for pouring cylinders with dull iron ; and, in some cases, 
the moulder is justified in considering them. By pouring dull 
he has less risk ; and, considering all points, he keeps the most 



MAKING rYl,lNDER8 ANt) CASTINOS TO FINISH. 80 

chances in his favor, and trusts to luck for the machine -shop 
test. Some moulders can make a fine mould to look at, but the 
iron spoils it. A '•^ fine mould " does not ahvays insure a 
'••^ fine casting. ^^ 

It would be impossible to state the many reasons why cylin- 
ders are lost in casting. Sometimes the plan of making the 
mould is all wrong, and sometimes the moulder's manipulations 
are wrong. Some will gate and east a cylinder contrary to all 
reason. There are many who can make a good-looking unfin- 
ished casting, but, when it comes to making a casting that shall 
be clean after the skin is removed, they are at fault. 

The science of making many sound finished castings can 
generally be told in a few maxims. First, make a mould that 
will stand fast and hot pouring ; second, a casting gated or 
poured by underneath side or joint ranners, or gates, had gener- 
rally better be gated or run as far as possible from the portion 
recpdred to be finished; third, put good feeders upon the heaviest 
parts of the casting, and siqyply them, tcith good hot iron until 
all the lighter 'pa,rts are frozen up, and, do not leave the heavy 
parts as long as the iron is liquid; fourth, study the science of 
making runners and gates; fifth, never forget that hot iron 
shoidd make a sounder and cleaner finished casting than didl 
iron; sixth, remember that dirt ivill rise and lodge at under 
surfaces or upper portions of a moidd. 

In casting cylinders, there are two ways practised. One is to 
cast them vertically, and the other to cast them horizontally. 

A cylinder cast horizontally cannot be as sound as one cast 
vertically. In casting horizontally, more or less dirt will ])e 
caught and held by the under side of the centre-core, as shown 
at A, Fig. 14 ; and also in the cope, as seen at B. The author 
does not wish to be understood to say that good cylinders 
cannot be made by casting them horizontally. There are some 
firms that turn out excellent cylinders that are cast horizontally ; 
and, practically, they are as good for the purpose intended, as 
if they were cast upon their ends. 



40 



Making cylinders and castings to finish. 



An obiectionahlc feature of horizoutal casting is, that even if 
you should have in the under portion of the core stock enough 
to bore out any dirt, the upper portion of the cylinder B will 
contain more or less invisible dirt, or the iron will not be as 
dense as in the bottom portion ; so that, should the cylinder 
bore out clean, it cannot be as strong as if it had been cast 
vertically. Green-sand as well as dry-sand moulds are in- 
cluded in this statement. 




Fig. 14. 



In making cylinders in green sand, it is rare that they are 
cast other than horizontall}' ; while with dry-sand moulds they 
are cast in both ways. In loam the}' are always cast vertically ; 
at least, the author never saw or heard of one being cast other- 
wise. Smoother castings are generally made in loam than in 
dry sand ; and the smoothness of loam-castings is not nearly as 
apt to be a sign of imperfections appearing during the machin- 
ist test, as in dry-sand castings. 

In pouring any casting, there is more or less dirt accumulated ; 
if not from the mould, it will be from the metal. This dirt does 



MAKING CYLINDERS AND CASTINGS TO FINISH. 41 

not always come to the surface of the casting, so as to he visi- 
ble : it may be just under the skin of the casting ; and, again, it 
may penetrate quite a depth into the casting. The fluidity of 
the metal, and thickness of the parts cast, materially affect the 
degree to which dirt rises. Did the metal stay as fluid in the 
mould as when poured out of the ladle, the dirt would in time 
all rise to the surface ; but, as we know that metal commences 
to get sluggish rapidly as soon as it is in the mould, we must 
expect that the degree to which the dirt will rise to the upper 
surface will depend upon how fast the metal loses its fluidity. 

When a cylinder is condemned, the fault is not usually in the 
iron. The trouble is, there are places where there is no iron, — 
nothing but dirt or holes. If, in the place of this dirt or holes, 
there were iron, the casting would not be condemned. If there 
are holes without dirt, the chances are ten to one that some- 
thing foreign to the iron caused them. If the iron is porous or 
honeycombed, the cause may be looked for in "mould-blowing," 
poor feeding, or badly proportioned sections that cannot be 
reached by iron to take the place of that which is drawn away 
to supply the shrinkage of other parts. 

Of course we have unsound and condemned finished castings, 
caused directl}^ by the iron, but not so many as are charged to 
it. Holes containing sand show a fault in the moulding. To 
keep these sand- or dirt-holes from appearing in sections that 
are not the uppermost parts of a casting when being made, the 
hotter the iron is poured the better. Hot iron will float and let 
dirt rise up throitgh it quicker than dull iron. Of course we 
cannot destroy the dirt or sand by using hot iron ; but by using 
it we are more sure of making the dirt go wherever there might 
)e riser-heads, etc., placed to receive it. The patt rn-maker 
inows, if any part of a casting is to be specially clean, he must 
make the pattern to mould, as far as plans will permit, so as to 
hold no dirt on that part, as the iron rises up in the mould. 

In pouring moulds that are largely composed of crooks and 



42 MAKING CYLINDERS AND CASTINGS TO FINISH. 

cores, there is always more or less dirt generated from the 
mould-surface as the iron runs over it ; and these very same 
crooks and cores may be so situated as to hold and catch dirt 
that we would like to have pass up into higher portions of the 
mould. Cores and crooks could often be so placed as to catch 
dirt, and prevent it from getting to parts that require to be 
sound and clean. 

All unsound castings are not to be laid to the moulder. 
Many patterns are made in such a way that the required perfect 
parts cannot be insured. The required parts to be finished 
should be so marked on the drawing, and before the pattern is 
made its construction should be based upon the best and surest 
way to make these parts sound. The foreman moulder should 
always be consulted in this, as he should know something of the 
matter. There are often little points, which, when examined by 
the moulder and pattern-maker together, can be made to the 
profit of all concerned. One great trouble with some of our 
foundry foremen is, that they cannot read a drawing, and so the 
pattern-maker has it all his own way ; and, when the pattern is 
about finished, the foreman can then advise how it should have 
been made. 

Returning to steam-cylinders : the most reliable way to cast 
them so that they will come perfectly clean when bored is to 
cast them vertically when practical. In pouring from the top, as 
at P, Fig. 15, there are two advantages over pouring altogether 
from the bottom, as shown at H. The first benefit is, that we 
have as hot iron filling the top portion of the mould as there is 
at the bottom. In pouring a cylinder all from the bottom, the 
iron becomes duller the higher it rises. In pouring cylinders, 
if we can run or gate them, so as to have the iron as hot in one 
section as in another, it is a good thing accomplished. Some 
may think that the plan shown of pouring the locomotive side- 
saddle cylinder is not consistent with the above ; but with a 
iittle thought, and close reading of the following, the moulder 



MAKING CYLINDERS AND CASTINGS TO FINISH. 



43 



will see that the principle is one worth remomhering;. The 
side-saddle part of the locomotive cylinder is often filled with 
many crooked cores, and the thickness of iron around them is 



VA:. 



)i 



-? 



r ■ ■ ■ ;m\l'^^^^^^^^ 



■:X 



■yiSadclle:/B6it}j C6re.\ 







Fig. 15. 

far less than that around the cylinder centre core. By pouring 
the casting as shown at XX, the metal is admitted into the 
thinnest sections, from which it runs to the heaviest, thereby 



i4 MAKING CYLINDERS AND CASTINGS TO FINISH. 

giving a far more even temperature all over tlie mould thaj 
were the iron first run into tlie heaviest, and allowed to flow to 
the thinnest, portion of the mould. 

It may suggest itself, that, in pouring altogether from the 
bottom, it would be better to have the metal enter as near as 
practicable to the main body of the C3'linder, so as to get the 
hottest iron in the part that must be clean. In this way, it is 
true, you would get the hottest metal in the body of the cylinder 
shown ; but there is nothing to arrest the dirt, which is apt to 
make the casting unsound where it should be sound. It must 
be understood that the cylinders shown were only poured 
through the gates at XX. The gates at H and P are given to 
show how cylinders having no side-saddle are often best poured. 
By pouring the saddle-cylinder through the gates XX, the 
liquid metal may be said to be filtered as water is by charcoal : 
there being so many cores, and the metal in this portion of the 
casting being the thinnest, nearl}^ all the dirt and scum are 
arrested, and do not enter the main body of the cylinder. So, 
even if the iron is duller when it reaches the main body of the 
cylinder, it is, at the same time, cleaner. In respect to 
the cylinder shown, the author can recollect making about 
eighty of them during the course of three years with success, 
by the plan of the gates XX, as shown ; although these cylin- 
ders finished up clean, it must not be understood that all side- 
saddle cylinders would turn out clean were they similarly gated 
or poured. It may, in some cases, be advisable to have a por- 
tion of the metal drop from the top after the bottom is well 
covered with the flowing-in metal. One of the benefits that is 
derived in pouring from the top is, that the iron is all the time 
^Iropping upon the top of the rising metal. By thus doing, it 
cuts up the dirt or scum in such a manner as to keep it upon 
the top, and keep it from gathering in lumps or rolling up 
gainst the side of the core or mould. In this way the dirt is 
iept floating upon the top of the rising metal, and thereby is 



MAKING CYLINDERS AND CASTINGS TO FINISH. 45 

brought up into the dirt-catcher, or riser-head, shown at W. 
Cylinders poured frovi the top generally have a rougher skin than 
those poured from the bottom, caused b}' the agitation of the 
rising metal against the mould's surface. They are also more 
liable to be scabbed and cut than those poured from the bottom ; 
but nevertheless they will, as a general thing, finish up clean. 
It is often surprising how much a casting poured entirely from 
the top may scab, and still be clean when finished up. Were 
the same scabs upon a casting poured from the bottom, the 
chances are ten to one it would present so man}- holes as to 
disgust any one even to count them, especially if the casting 
were poured by having the metal poured in at the main body of 
the cylinder through a gate situated similarly to that shown at 
H. A cylinder poured from the bottom, to finish clean, must at 
least be free from scabs. 

The plan here shown of having a gate running down to the 
bottom of the mould, with top runners attached to it in order 
to pour from the top as well as the bottom, is often a good one 
for cylinders, as b}' it you can start slowly to cover over the 
bottom of the mould, after which the gates can be filled, and 
the metal be made to enter at the top as well as at the bottom. 
By first covering over the bottom of the mould, we prevent it 
from being cut by the falling iron. Some may say this is not 
necessary ; for how is it that long water or gas pipes can be 
poured altogether from the top, and yet the bottoms not be cut? 
In pouring such castings, the iron is prevented from falling 
directly from the top to the bottom by the thinness of the space 
between the core and mould ; the iron, in dropping, going from 
one side to the other, its friction decreases its velocity, and 
the force of its fall. When such thin castings are scabbed, it 
is generally the sides of the mould, and not the bottom. With 
cylinders or pipes over one inch in thickness, the iron has a 
freer chance to fall directly upon the bottom, and thereby cut 
or scab it. 



46 MAKING CYLINDERS AND CASTINGS TO FINISH. 

Cylinders similar to the locomotive side-saddle ones, that have 
large foreign attachments cast on them, are often better cast 
by having most of the metal go in at the bottom. Should such 
cylinders as these be poured altogether from the top, the sides 
of the mould all the way up would be liable to be cut or 
ficabbed, or present a very rough body skin, caused by the agi- 
tation of the metal against the surface of the mould, and the 
liMigth of time required for the metal to rise above anj' given 
point. The falling iron, instead of directly tilling the body of 
the cylinder, runs away to till up the side-saddle or the large 
attachments ; and in the mean time there is danger of the agi- 
tation of the metal, causing scabbing of the mould's surface. 
In pouring any castings, the sooner the agitation of the metal 
against the mould's surface ceases, the better for the casting. 

With reference to the general plan adopted in pouring cylin- 
ders in loam, they are usually poured from the top, while in 
dry sand the reverse is true. Often in both instances the top 
and bottom methods are combined ; especially so when the 
cylinder is over four-foot stroke. There are other points about 
cylinders that require to be as perfect as the bore, some of 
which will be found in the following article, " Moulding and 
Casting Cylinders." 

It might be well here to notice the question of unsound riser- 
heads. Many vertical-cast cylinders have, when their riser-head 
was cut off, presented a flanged surface full of holes, some of 
which are often larger than a marble. The writer recalls the 
case of a foundry where he worked, that had experienced much 
trouble from this cause. They had tried in every way imagin- 
able to stop the trouble; but when "working iu the dark," 
there is greater liability of aggravating the difficulty than of 
remedying it. The whole trouble lay in having too large a 
corner at K, and too thin a riser-head. This corner, as is well 
known, is made for the purpose of allowing dirt to pass up into 
the riser-head. Now, when this corner A" is much larger 



MAKING CYLINDERS AND CASTINGS TO FINISH. 47 

than the riser-head, the latter will solidify first ; then, if the 
body of the cylinder is still liquid, whatever metal is required 
to feed it will, of course, be drawn from the uppermost liquid 
portion ; so that the addition of the large corner K to the flange 
thickness must result in the accumulation at this point of a 
body of liquid metal far in excess of that in the lower adjoining 
body of the cylinder. There is no objection to a large corner 
at A", providing the riser-head is made thick enough to feed it ; 
but if the riser-head is not thick enough, then the cylinder 
should have leeding-heads made large enough to feed the cyl- 
inder, as shown above W. Many make a practice of not 
feeding their cylinders: they ''flow them through" a little, 
and then trust to the riser-head to do the rest. In some cases 
this may work all right ; but the practice of putting on a large 
feeding-head, and feeding until certain the heaviest portion of 
the cylinder has solidified, will, in the end, cause the least 
trouble from unsound top cylinder flanges. 
■ The successful making of cylinder castings is an art that the 
best men in the business have given much thought and study. 
Some have succeeded, while others have not ; and a thorough 
practical study of perfect cylinder-making will hurt no one, for 
its principles are such as can be applied to nearly all sound and 
clean-finished castings. 

In fact, there is this to say of studying up any special sub- 
ject in moulding, as in other mechanical matters : The informa- 
tion gained cannot be all charged against the job in hand, as 
it will not infrequently, and perhaps when least expected, be 
found of even greater value in some other direction. Knowl- 
edge has the advantage of almost unlimited application, and 
will render an equivalent for time spent in its acquisition. 



48 CLEAN VALVE-FACES. 



MOULDING AND CASTING CYLINDERS TO 
PROCURE CLEAN VALVE-FACES. 

Two important considerations are involved in making cylin- 
ders : one is, that the casting shall be clean in the bore ; and 
the other, that the valve-face shall be clean. In the previous 
article, the subject was considered with reference to the bore of 
the cylinder. The object of the present article is to discuss the 
subject with reference to the valve-face. It is quite as impor- 
tant that the valve-face be sound, as it is that the bore be per- 
fect ; and, in considering plans, it is necessary to have both 
these surfaces prominently in view, in order that one may not 
be sacrificed to the other, which is often done. 

By casting a cylinder horizontally, with the face down, we 
are reasonably sure of getting that clean ; but the chances are 
that the bore will be dirty. By casting it vertically (properly 
gated) , the chances are the most in favor of the bore. There 
are plans, the adoption of which will often assist in getting clean 
faces on vertically cast cylinders, some of which will be referred 
to. There are many different kinds of cylinders, some of which 
are of a construction that makes it extremely difficult, if not 
impossible, to provide for having all parts perfectly clean and 
sound. The cuts here shown do not illustrate methods that 
are common, or generally employed, but new methods used by 
the author and others with good success. 

When a cylinder is cast vertically, we generally find the lower 
cast opening the dirtiest ; this part of the face, as shown at K, 
Fig. 16, being the first to catch the dirt. B and A may catch 
some dirt, but it is not reasonable to suppose they will catch as 



CLEAN VALVE-FACES. 



49 



^ KH. OS 10 
I I I j 

■Mo_ __o_ _ _o g_ _ h I o. • p_ . Io_ _o _o __| 




^^^fc 



£0 CLEAN VALVE-FACES. 

much as K. The amount of dirt that the lower core or opening 
will collect depends upon how clean the mould is, and Avhether 
it scabs or not. When the lower portion of such moulds scab, 
there is danger of extra dirt being collected at K; and, when 
there is any scahhing, it is generally in the lower portion of the 
mould. This, in connection with the fact that the dirt is col- 
lected at K from a much larger body of the mould than it is at 
B or A, accounts for the part tC being the dirtiest. Since it 
is apparent that dirt will lodge at K, the question is, how best 
to prevent it from injuring the casting. The cut presents two 
plans for doing this. In the first one, the cavity in the lower 
port core (above K) is provided. This cavity extends the 
entire length of the core, and as the iron rises it floats or 
forces the dirt into this cavity. This being made purposely for 
a dirt-receiver, is cut off in finishing the cylinder. 

The second plan is shown at B. Here, instead of the cavity, 
we have holes passing through till the cores. When the dirt 
comes up to the first core, it passes upwards through the others. 
The port core E shows a plan of the holes, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4. 
Of course, the closer these holes can be made, the better the 
chances of the face being clean. 

At ^is shown a plan, that, in some cases, might be used to 
advantage. It represents a false core, set for the purpose of 
catching dirt, thereby preventing it from rising up to K. The 
core is made dovetailing in order to hold Babbitt, or composi- 
tion, when the hole is filled. Instead of a core, a thin iron 
plate might be used, the advantage of which would be that it 
will be left in the casting, thereby avoiding taking off core- 
vents and filling up the hole with Babbitt, which, even if nicely 
done, would not leave as neat a face as the plate would when 
chipped off, for the plate would be placed below the projectioR 
of the valve-face, and there could be no damage done, even 
if the plate caused a chill around it. I have never heard of the 
above being used ; but, as I see no reason why it should no- 
work well in many cases, the idea is given. 



CLEAN VALVE-FACES 'A 

The reader will excuse being carried back to the bore ques- 
tkm. At D, the port core is showu to be kept back from the 
centre core. Generally, in setting port cores, they are set up 
close, or nearly so, as shown at T. When the upper port core 
is set, as at T, against the centre core, it is sure to catch more 
or less dirt, thereby making the bore of the C3'linder dirty at 
this point. If the core is kept back from f" to f", it will 
allow the dirt to pass upwards into the dirt-riser. 

At XX are shown two ways of securing these ends, so that 
thej' cannot move wheu the mould is being poured or up-ended. 
This difficulty of up-ending moulds is very often the reason for 
their being cast horizontally. A cylinder moulded and cored 
horizontall}^ requires to be well made and secured in order to 
safely up-end it to cast vertically. To set cores so they will 
not be disturbed by turning the mould upside down, or on its 
end, requires the practice of skill and caution ; for the least 
movement on the part of the cores will be liable to allow the 
iron to get into the vents. 

Ai tne lower letter X, the core is shown chapleted up against 
the centre core. This presses it in the same direction that the 
metal will ; but, as it is already pressed as far as it can go, 
the pressure of the liquid iron cannot lift it farther. The upper 
letter X shows a chaplet at the back, placed so as to prevent 
the core from being pressed back. No. 2 represents a bolt for 
holding the core back against the chaplets X, in order that it 
cannot fall back and close up the opening D. Nos. 3, 4, and 7 
represent the print ends of the exhaust and port cores, tied so 
they cannot move out of their place. Where wire is used for 
tying such cores, it is better to use No. 18 wire doubled and 
twisted together. This gives a stronger and at the same time 
a more pliable tie than in the case of a single wire of the same 
diameter. 

At Nos. 6 and 8 is shown how chaplets are sometimes used 
between the exhaust and port cores, to assist in holding them 



52 CLEAN VALVE -FACES. 

in place. Chaplets should never be set against the centre core 
of a cylinder. When thus set, they are likely to produce blow- 
holes in the bore of the cj^linder ; or they will make the iron 
hard around them, thus providing for unequal wear or cutting. 
Cores can always be secured in some other way, by the exercise 
of a little judgment. This is equally true of the valve-face. 
The temptation to set chaplets against the valve-face, or to 
drive rods into it, should always be resisted. In making cylin- 
ders, iron that chills easily is generally used : therefore, when 
the iron comes in contact with chaplets, it frequently makes it 
so hard as to be worked with great difficulty. 

Having noticed plans that may be employed for securing 
clean valve-faces on cylinder castings, it is proper to notice the 
objections to these plans. There is more inconvenience and 
risk in using cores, as shown at KB^ than there is in using such 
cores as ordinarily- made, as shown at ^1, for the reason that 
there is not so good an opportunity to rod and vent the former. 
The thicker, however, the cores are, the less the inconvenience 
and risk. The port and exhaust cores are about the mo«t diffi- 
cult we have to deal with, and there are few that are capable of 
handling them. The plans I have described will often provide 
for making good cj'linders, where there is trouble with the 
valve-faces. 

The right-hand figure represents a plan of casting locomotive 
cylinders that my stepfather, Andrew Baird, employed in the 
Portland Locomotive Company's Works foundry (Portland, 
Me.), a shop in which I served half of my six-years' appren- 
ticeship. The cylinders were cast slanting to get a good face, 
the inclined position of the cores allowing dirt to be washed 
upwards. These cores were made as shown at A; mj memory 
being quickened in this respect from the fact that three or four 
of them were broken over m}' head because I allowed them to 
get burned. It may be argued that this way of casting is sac- 
rificing the bore to the valve-face, but a little consideration wUl 



CLEAN VALYE-FACES. 53 

show that it was about equally dividing the chances between 
the valve-face and bore. The plan proved a success. These 
cj'linders did not have any side-saddle cast on them, and they 
were poured altogether from the bottom. About six hundred 
pounds of iron flowed through, and ran down to the pig-bed 
W. This is something that should be done with most cylinders 
ihat are poured entirely from the bottom, as b}- so doing it 
assists in raising the dirt upwards, and helps to make solid 
casting, especially when feeding is omitted. 



64 CASTING WHOLE OR IN PARTS. 



CASTING WHOLE OR IN PARTS, AND POINTS 
IN CYLINDER MOULDING. 

The making of the low-pressure cylinder for a marine com- 
pound engine, to be described, involves points which will be 
interesting to moulders and foundry managers. It is not so 
very far back, when, if one successfully cast a cylinder alone, 
nuR'h praise would be awarded. Some one, in order to save 
labor and receive more credit, cast the cylinder with one head. 
Another, to beat this, cast the cylinder head and cap together. 
To beat this, some genius will be trying to cast an engine com- 
plete, — a thing which, from looking at some of our modern 
engines, seems nearly accomplished. The saving of making 
jolats or connections in all classes of machinery is, at the pres- 
ent day, a point well worth studying. Many of our progres- 
sive machinery manufacturers are making improvements in 
this direction ; well knowing that the nearer whole a machine 
can practically be cast, the cheaper it can be sold. B}^ practi- 
calh% I mean where parts can be cast without causing excessive 
strains, and where the cost of moulding does not exceed the 
expense of connecting the parts if cast separate. 

There are many cases where intelligently casting parts to- 
gether increases the strength of the whole ; and I think that 
casting the head and cap with the cylinder, as shown, is not 
only a saving in cost, but increases the strength of the body of 
the cylinder as well. The manner in which this cylinder was 
cast will, I think, be approved by practical men as being sim- 
ple, and as good a one as could be adopted. All the parting 
required is at i? i2, Fig. 20. A plan of the parting ring is seen at 



CASTING WHOLE OR IN PARTS. 



66 



Fig. 18 : the thickness of such a sized ring should be at least 2^". 
Were it less than this, having such a load to lift, It would be 
very likely to spring. In green-sand work, moulds may spring, 
and do no harm ; but with loam-work springing of moulds is, 
as a general thing, ver^' injurious. Casting the head and cap 
up, brings the steam-chest well down towards the bottom. This 
assists in getting sounder and cleaner chest and valve openings 
than if the cylinder were cast the other end down, as is some- 
times done. The reason of this is, that the higher the chest is 




46^ Square * 

1 Ian of Cap and, Gates 
Fig. 17. 



Section through Chest and Belt. 
Fig. 18. 



from bottom of mould, the more body there is for dirt to be 
collected from ; therefore, the nearer the bottom the chest is, 
the less chances of its being dirty. 

Another point, which I think practical men will approve of, 
is the style in which the cores are constructed. As will be 
seen, the half-chest and port core is made in one piece. Gen- 
erally, in such cases, the chest core is made; wit!i jirints into 
which the port and exhaust cores are secured, as shown in 
Fig. 19. By such a plan, there is, with the best of care, more or 
less danger of iron getting in the vents ; and still another objec- 
tionable feature to such a plan is the tendency of the valve- 



56 



CASTING WHOLE OR IN PARTS. 



1 



openings to be cast out of parallel, thereby often requiring 
much chipping to get them true, or perhaps preventing the 




intended width of port openings. The cylinder here shown, the 
author lately cast in the Cuyahoga Works ; and it well illus« 



CASTING WHOLE OR iN PARTS. 57 

trates the advantage of making chest and port cores as 
described, when practicable. 

For convenience in handling and making cores, and also to 
save pattern-niaking, the steam-chest and belt cores were made 
in what might be termed half-core boxes. This will be better 
understood by reference to T T, Fig. 18. The belt core at B B, 
Fig. 18, has no prints ; this end being held in place by top and 
bottom chaplets, seen at P P, Fig. 20. The black squares on 
belt core, Fig. 18, represent chaplets, and show in what order 
they were placed above and below the core. The steam-chest 
core was held in place by chaplets at H and S^ Fig. 20. The 
core N, below F, was made independent of the steam-chest, and 
was the first core set. As it was to cut through to steam-chest, 
the opening made a very good bearing for the chest core to 
rest upon. The lower half of the chest core being set, the 
next to follow was the belt core, after which the upper half 
of the chest core was set. In setting the halves of the chest 
core, care was taken to see that the valve-face portion was true 
and in line. Of course, had the chest core been whole, or not 
parted, as shown at T T, this care would not have been re- 
quired, nor the chaplets H and S needed. 

After these cores were set, as described, the cope, or upper- 
cheek portion of the mould, was lowered to place. Then a 
l)olt as seen at W, near Fig. 19, was placed in order to firmly 
hold the port core back against the chaplets. The belt core 
was then chapleted to hold it down : this completed the setting 
of these cores. After securing the vents, the next operation 
was ramming up the mould in the pit. This having been done, 
the mould was cleaned out, and preparation made for lowering 
in the centre core. The preparation consisted mainly in pla- 
cing the set screws as seen in the securing-pit at D D, the 
purpose of which is described in the article " Moulding a 
Jacket Cylinder," p. 60. Six short pieces of candles being 
lighted, and placed upon the bottom flange, the centre core was 



58 CASTING WHOLE OR IN PARTS. 

then lowered into its print. (The manner in which this core 
was lifted will be understood by "Revolving Core and Under- 
Surface Sweeping" article, p. 66.) The core having been ad- 
justed to show equal space all around the top, b}' the use of 
four set screws D D, the space between the bottom plate and 
core ring, at M, was then securelj' packed with mud and bricks, 
in order to prevent au}^ chance run-out. After this, the e3'e- 
bolt was placed for the purpose of assisting in holding down 
the core. The space F being now filled with rnoulding-sand, 
the 6" core was centred and set. Twelve chaplets — three for 
each of the four cap cores — now being set, the cap cores were 
placed upon them in position to have their arms come square 
with the mould, and the outer circumference kept so as to give 
the required thickness. This completed the setting of all cores. 
A straight dry-sand cope was then set on, and the vent-holes 
made. Then, being closed for good, the mould was finished 
and got ready for casting. In making the chest and port 
cores, vents were formed, as shown at X, Fig. 20, which clearly 
represents the manner in which they are arranged. The vents 
were obtained by the use of straight rods, and the core irons 
were welded frames. The vents of the chest and port cores 
were taken off at the print end, the same as shown for the belt 
core at Y Y. The belt core was vented by partly filling the 
space between the cast-iron pricked frames used for the core 
rods, as seen at A A, with fine cinders. By this plan there are 
no joint vents. This is something I always try to avoid as 
much as possible. Taking off vents through the joints of cores 
is always more or less risky. Hot iron is about as bad as 
steam for penetrating cracks or joints. 

In building up this mould, sweeps were used for the plain 
cylindrical portions, and patterns for the chest, etc., such as 
are ordinarily used. In building under the steam-chest, cinders 
were laid to carry off the vent from core N. Between the lower 
flange and steam-chest, rods were laid to assist the bricks in 



CASTING WHOLE OR IN PARtS. 59 

firmly holding the small body C. The body over the chest 
was held and lifted by being secured with the rods and plates 
shown. The style adopted in building up around the steam- 
chest was different from that generally employed : instead of 
oiling the pattern, and building it up in soft loam, the bricks 
were kept back about two inches from the face of the pattern, 
as shown ; and a dry-sand mixture, similar to that which would 
be used for dry-sand moulding, rammed between the bricks and 
the face of the pattern, the bricks having their faces rubbed with 
a little wet loam in order to make it certain the sand would stick 
to them. This plan is used with much of our work, and it 
gives good results. With this explanation, the practical loam- 
moulder will be able to account for the building-in of the rods 
over the chest and at C, as shown. 

In making the centre core, the brickwork being built up to 
the height shown, the top-plate, after being set on, was partly 
filled up with cinders, over which a mixture of dry sand was 
rammed to form the top portion of the core. The corners, 
GG, are well nailed to assist in holding the projection seen, 
and to help prevent the falling iron, when pouring the mould, 
from cutting the sand. 

In pouring the cylinder, we let about two thousand pounds 
go in at the bottom gate, shown by dotted entrance Z, Fig. 20. 
When about fifteen hundred pounds had been poured in, we 
then started pouring in from the top, through the eleven gates 
shown in plan. Fig. 17. The size of these gates was |"x If". 
At K is represented the feeding-head, which was placed over 
the steam -chest side. The casting did not present any scabs 
or sand-holes : the skin was a dark-blue color, and as smooth 
as a piece of stove-plate. This cylinder is not shown to repre- 
sent large work, but simply because its making involved points 
thought to be of general interest. 



60 MOULDING A JACKETED CYLINDER. 



MOULDING A JACKETED CYLINDER. 

At the left of the engraving (Fig. 21) is shown a section of a 
jacketed cylinder, which will be recognized by the practised 
moulder as being a somewhat difficult casting to make. The 
outside of the casting is a simple affair enough ; the difficulties 
being confined almost entirely to the centre core, which is shown 
in section on the right, together with the sweep and other ac- 
cessories used in its making. 

In making the mould, the outside was made first, not because 
it is customary to do so, but because we had to build it up and 
dry it in a pit, from a lack of oven-room. At K is shown 
the bottom plate ; also a holding-down hook, of which there are 
four. The plate was set on a solid sand foundation ; and, in 
order to leave a pit below, a cast-iron ring F was used. This 
pit was required to provide room for a man to operate screws 
for centring the centre core, as will be explained farther on. 

Tn making the outside mould, there were five 6" round blocks 
distributed so as to equally divide the circumference, for 
making vent-holes, as at H. At Y is represented a plate 
placed upon the top of the mould to stiffen and hold the brick- 
work together. After the mould was finished and blacked, it 
was then prepared for drying by laying four railroad-bais 
across, so they would rest upon the pit about 4" above the top 
of the mould. On top of these were placed sheet-iron plates, 
and the open portions of the pit, between the rails, were bricked 
up to prevent the escape of heat. Charcoal and coke were used 
for drying, the charcoal being on the outside and the coke on 
the inside. For the first twenty-four hours, there was a fire 




I 

Sectional'Fieut of Casting 



Regula linQ Screw J -^-[ .;■:..• .;-^^:v^: - 

Sectional View of Mould 

Fig. 21. 



f 




Mould 



MOULDING A JACKETED CYLINDER. 61 

iipou the outside only, because both fires would, at the begiu- 
uing, have been likely to blister the mould. The coke fire was 
made in a perforated boiler-iron kettle, about 18" diameter 
and 24" deep ; the kettle having an open top and fire-grate 
bottom, and being let down until the top of the fire was about 
even with the bottom of the mould. 

The pit was originally some fifteen feet in depth, having been 
made for other purposes, and then filled up so as to be eight 
feet deep. The bottom of the small inner pit F was three feet 
below the bottom of the large pit, the diameter of the small 
pit being 42". The diameter of the large pit was 13 feet. 
Upon the bottom of the large pit, a boiler-iron curb was placed. 
This was to make the pit smaller at and towards the bottom, to 
confine the fire, and also to save work in ramming up. The 
distances of the mould from the pit, given in engraving, are not 
the actual ones, but are those it would be desirable to have for 
convenience of operations with such a mould. 

It may be asked, "Why, if there is room enough at the bottom 
of the pit, should it not be made the same size at the top? 

In answer, it may be said that the sand requires harder ram- 
ming at the bottom than at the top of a mould, and sand can 
more readily be rammed solid in a small space than in a large 
one. Besides, while it is practicable to ram the small space at 
the bottom, if this space were continued to the top there would 
not be room to work to advantage. 

In fitting up old pits for drying moulds, where a natural 
draught cannot be had, a blast-pipe may be laid all around the 
bottom, having a branch E passing up to the top, through 
which connection is made with a blower or fan. The 4" brick 
wall seen upon the outside of the blast-pipe E is the pit's wall. 
AVhile it is only shown as of a small height, it is, of course, to 
be understood that its depth is about the height of the mould. 

In firing up on the outside of this mould, six to eight bushels 
of charcoal were evenly distributed on top of the blast-pipe K^ 



62 MOULDING A JACKETED CYLINDER. 

which had small holes bored in it. The fire was started 1)y 
throwing hot coals on the charcoal and pntting the blast on. 

After the fire was well under wa}-, the blast was shut off. 
The mould was uncovered every twenty-four hours, and fresh 
fuel added, until it was found to be dry. 

In making the centre core of this mould, the sweep was in 
sections, so that parts could be detached as required. 

In commencing, the sweep was secured to the arms A and B, 
as shown. The bottom plate having been levelled and centred, 
the core was then built up to a point indicated by the figures 25. 
'i'he first section of the sweep was then temporarily removed, 
and the plate 26 put on. 

The space between the prickers 3 and 6 was packed with 
bricks, with a good laj'er of cinders under them. Bricks 27 
were then built up, after which this portion was loamed up. 
The first section of sweep was then permanently removed, and 
the arm B moved up to 4. The core was then bricked and fin- 
ished up to the joint 28. The lower tying ring 29 was then set 
on, which was done without removing the top spindle-arm, 
because of the opening in the ring seen at the top in the left- 
hand side of the cut. The ring being in place, a small sweep 
d-t 30 was bolted to the arm, and a level joint swept up. This 
sweep was then taken off, and the second section of sweep 
unscrewed and taken off permanently. The bottom bed, 8, 
was then covered with parting sand, over which was placed 2" 
of moulding sand. This was done to protect this part of the 
mould from pieces of brick and from wet loam, liable to fall 
when building the upper part of the core. 

In the next operation B was moved up to 3, and after being 
bolted the sweep was run up above the joint. The top spindle- 
arm being removed, the joint lifting ring 31 was lowered by 
the crane to place, there being three pins, one of which is 
shown at 32, for guides. The sweep was then let down to 
place, and the top arm secured ; the collar 33 not having been 
moved, the sweep was necessarily in the correct position. 



MOULDING A JACKETED CYLINDER. 63 

The core was then built and finished up to arm 3, the third 
section of sweep taken oflf, and arm A moved up to 1, and arm 
B up to 2. The core was then built and loam-finished up to 
34, the fourth section of the sweep taken off, the top arm 
removed, and sweeps and arms A and B taken off the spindle. 
The ring 35 was then set on, the arms and sweep reset, and 
the top arm secured ; then the ring 35 was centred. The fourth 
section of the sweep was then reset, the bottom being omitted. 
The under and side portions of 35, as at 5, 6, and 7, were now 
swept up or loam-finished. 

It may be here stated that ring 35, before being set, had the 
space between the prickers packed with brick, and the surface 
daubed with loam, the whole being dried in the oven. This 
provides a body for absorbing moisture, making the sweeping 
at 5, 6, and 7 practicable. 

The underneath sweeping being completed, the fourth section 
of the sweep was permanently removed. Arm B was now car- 
ried up close to A (which, it must be remembered, is now up 
at 1), and the remainder of the core finished. 

The location of the top arm should be higher than shown, 
to allow of completion of the core without further moving-up of 
the sweep arms. 

In building and finishing the portion above 35, a layer of 
cinders was used on top of the plate. The dotted lines, extend- 
ing from X to 5, show the position of runner gates, built about 
15" apart. X represents a basin made when building the upper 
part of the core. At 36 a ring plate is represented, which was 
used for the purpose of giving support and a body from which 
to wedge down the core in getting ready to cast. The com- 
pleted core was then parted, and after the joint was finned and 
finished it was placed in the oven to dry. 

The sectional view shows the mould closed, to be prepared 
for casting. In starting to close, the centre core was lowered, 
a section at a time, into the mould. Then by four regulatino' 



64 MOULDING A JACKETED CYLINDER. 

screws, one of which is shown at the bottom phite, the core was 
adjusted to show equal space all around the riser-head S. 
After the core was centred, the space between the plates, as at 
37, was carefully and solidly packed with brick and loam, as a 
safeguard against run-outs. 

At 38 and 39 are shown a plan and section of nuts for the 
regulating-screws. The two views, 39, show a block with a 
conical hole to allow the point of the screw to move, thereb;/ 
preventing throwing the bottom of the core out of the centre of 
the mould when clear of the print. After the bottom joint 
had been secured as described, the upper section of core from 
49 was hoisted, and all the side chaplets 41 and 42 set. There 
being five cores to set so as to leave a thickness of iron 
between them all, the chaplets required to be divided equall3% 
The bottom chaplets, shown at 40, were set in an iron stand, 
which fits into still ahother stand that is cast with plate 26. 
This plan makes the moving of chaplets impossible. The 
chaplets had f" stems, with plates 4" x 6", and for each core 
three bottom chaplets were used. Four side chaplets were used 
for the back of each core, two of which are shown at 41 and 42. 
A half-inch bolt, as at 43 and 44, was used to hold the cores 
against the chaplets. At 45 is represented a vent-hole con- 
nected with cinders, and at 46 a tube 3^" diameter, with the end 
tapered to fit tightly in the core vent-hole. The space H, be- 
tween the tube and mould, was rammed all around with saad 
to prevent the metal getting mto the vent-tube. At 47 is a 
plate 3" wide, ^" thick, and 18" long, placed m the core, when 
being made, to give support to the bolt-head 43. The space 
in front of the bolt-head was filled with beer-sand, and made 
level with the surface of the core. 

The cores being secured, the next operation was to arrange 
for chapleting down the cores, as at 48, which was done as fol- 
lows : On top of each core, three clay balls were set. The 
upper jointed section of the centre core was lowered down, its 



MOULDING A JACKETED CYLINDER. 65 

joint being at 49. This section was then hoisted, and chaplets 
were made -^" shorter than each clay ball measured. All the 
clay balls were numbered, and only two or three removed at a 
time, so as to insure against getting them mixed, as any blun- 
dering in this respect would probably result in losing the cast- 
ing. When all the chaplets were placed upon the exact spots 
previously occupied b}' the clay balls, and a little flour put on 
to insure their touching, the upper section of the centre cor3 
was lowered to its place, after which the riser-head S was 
covered with segment cores, as at N. The runner-basin X 
was not covered over as represented, until after the core was 
dried. The segments covering cores 51 were dry when set ; but 
in order to dry out the course of loam and bricks at 50, the 
core was given one night's firing, to expel any dampness the 
course of brick 50 might contain. 

At 52 is shown an iron ring, used in combination with 36 for 
wedging down the core against the high-head pressure. 

The pouring-basin had one runner gate, 4" diameter, leading 
to basin X, as seen at 53, The cylinder weighed a little more 
than eight tons ; there being flanges that are not shown, as they 
would serve to confuse the subject. The whole mould was 
secured by a cross-beam and slings, chains coming down to 
four hooks, one of which is shown at K. Enough iron was 
poured in at the bottom of the mould to fill it above 40 before 
any was poured in at the top. After the mould was poured, 
and sufficiently cool, the basin X was uncovered, and the basin 
iron broken up to assist the contraction as much as possible. 
The casting, when finished, was clean and without perceptible 
flaw. 



(16 REVOLVING COKE AND UNDEK-SURFACE SWEEPING. 



REVOLVING CORE AND UNDER-SURFACE 
SWEEPING. 

In vol. i., p. 187, is an illustrated article up6n "Sweeps 
and Spindles." The engraving shown is that of a rigging for 
under-loam surface sweeping. Loam cores are often of such 
shape that some such rigging is almost indispensable. Having 
in our foundry a very simple arrangement, that is not only 
adapted to under-sweeping, but to other purposes as w^ell, and 
which is in some respects superior to the rigging previously 
shown, it is thought a description of its workings may be of 
value. 

The advantage of this rigging over the common run of spin- 
dles could seldom be better displayed than in making the con- 
denser core seen in Fig. 23. The spindle is so designed, that 
after the core is swept it is then hoisted by the same spindle, 
as shown in Fig. 23. This spindle having a collar i^, and a key- 
hole 6r, Fig. 24, provides for securing to it any plate or ring, as 
seen at H and A", Figs. 25 and 26. When the ring K is wedged 
up tight against the collar, by the keys M, the building founda- 
tion of the condenser core is formed. 

The steel pin N being set in the step P, the spindle is then 
set up and secured by the top centring and holding-arm R. 
This arm is so constructed that it can in no way be sprung. 
The elevation and plan view of arm show its construction in 
outline. After the spindle has been secured, the next opera- 
tion is that of securing the sweep. 

In setting the sweep, an arm is bolted to step P, as seen at 
V. (The cap of this arm is not shown, in order to show the 




f'i>i.:ioWi ••■■•v:-V--!-r:\ \--v/:- v^; -.••:■•■■■!■:■•■■:•:■•■-,%■- •V^i 



Stationary Sweep and K«4wlviuff Core 



Spindle Stfp and Sti-adyiny Itiyyiny 



REVOLVING CORE AND UNDER-SURFACE SWEEPING. 67 

step and steel pin more fully.) This arm is set so as to be 
parallel with the top of sweep-holding arm Y. The manner of 
bolting the sweep to this arm is more fully shown at AA, in 
plan of arm. The bottom of sweep being secured by the bolt 
BB, and the sweep found to be gauged right, all is then ready 
for building up the core, which is done as follows : Pieces of 
bricks being built up as high as No. 2, a thin cast-iron ring is 
then laid on, after which the core is built up to No. 3, the plate 
there shown being then laid on ; bricks are then built up, and, 
the two plates at No. 4 being set, bricks are laid up to the end 
of the core, on top of which is a ring No. 5. This is used for 
the purpose of blocking upon, to hold down the core when cast- 
ing. The inside of the core was filled with clean, small cinders, 
lightly rammed, as it was built up. The core, being completed, 
was hoisted up and lowered on a plate FF, Fig. 23. On this 
plate was set an iron ring BB: this was packed with sand. 
The bottom of the spindle, where it projects through the plate 
FF, was clasped by a cap having laps as seen at KK. This 
being firmly bolted around the spindle, the core and its attach- 
ments were then hoisted and set on the oven carriage. AYhile 
many may never have such a core to move, the plan shown will 
no doubt be worth remembering, for the principle is applicable 
to other work. 

This condenser core is one which practical loam-moulders 
will concede to be rather a difficult core to make. Had the core 
been larger, the risks in making it would have been greatly 
lessened. The form of the casting made with the above core 
is seen in the section, Fig. 22. The outside portion of mould 
was jointed in two parts, at the respective heights ^1 and B. 
The casting was run entirely from the bottom, the metal going 
in through two gates at the flange C. At Z), upon the riser 
head, is a feeder. The situation of the gates will, of course, 
show that the mould was cast vertically. The dots at E repre- 
sent the print, which was swept in the mould for the print seen 



68 REVOLVING COKE AND UNDER-SURFACE SWEEPING. 

on core to set iuto. This guided and centred tlie bottom. The 
top was held centrally by three double-headed chaplets, placed 
in the riser head portion. 

For sweeping up outside moulds, we use revolving spindles. 
In their ends is a hole, so that they can be worked upon the 
same step as the spindles here shown. In sweeping the moulds, 
the spindle and sweep revolve, the mould remaining stationary. 
In these spindles there is what some would call a key-seat, run- 
ning the entire length. A plan of the arms, which are used 
with these spindles, is seen upon the left, at Figs. 28 and 29. 
The steel projections, shown in black, fitting into the spindle's 
key-slot, cause the arms to be exactly parallel to each other 
when two or more arms are used. This little wrinkle is one our 
president originated. We find that it saves lots of labor in 
setting sweeps, and it also makes a certainty of obtaining true 
vertical lines that by the old method are laborious to be obtained. 

As a general thing, loam-cores are swept by having the sweep 
revolve. I doubt if there could be found six foundries in the 
United States that do not follow this practice ; in fact, so far 
as I know, our shop is the only one that makes a practice of 
sweeping cores with stationary' sweeps, as shown. The plan 
was established long before I ever saw the shop ; and, as I find 
it a good one, it is still used. The advantage of having the 
sweep stationary is, that the core is certain to come to whatever 
diameter the sweep is set to ; also, there is no raising or lower- 
ing of spindle-arms to clear the brickwork as it is built up, as 
is often necessary when the core is statiouar}- and the sweep 
revolves. Having cores come larger or smaller than intended, 
or one end not right with the other in size, is no uncommon 
occurrence. Having to change the position of the arm, as is 
often necessary with revolving sweeps in sweeping long cores, 
one is apt to move the sweep ; and as the brickwork is more or 
less between the sweep and spindle, there is no handy means of 
ascertaining it. We, of course, can caliper the core after it is 



REVOLVING CORE AND UNDER-SURFACE SWEEPING. 69 

swept up ; but to then change the sweep's diameter is often 
objectionable, for loam scraped off or put on in thin layers may 
cause surface scabs. I might say, " Sweep only two small 
spots to test the diameter, then, if found right, sweep up the 
core." This, in many cases, is a good plan, and should be 
practised when exact sizes are wanted. But, as a general thing, 
wlien a moulder sets the sweep, he thinks of nothing but driving 
ahead ; and if the core is not found to be the right size when 
set into the mould, he often can easily make himself and others 
believe that the right sizes or gauges to set the sweep by were 
not obtained. 

In our shop, all cores are calipered with long, wooden-legged 
calipers, simply to make sure that our gauges or measurements 
were right when setting the sweep to sweep them. Our presi- 
dent, J. F. Holloway, is very particular in knowing that all 
parts have the thickness the drawing calls for ; and, did they not 
come so, an intelligent reason would have to be given. 

Did the receivers of swept-up loam-castings know how often 
the intended thickness is increased or decreased in the castings 
they receive, they might be surprised. In jobbing loam-work, 
no one can, day in and day out, sweep all his moulds so as to 
measure to ^V of what the draught calls for. As little as yV' 
off or on a thickness is but a small matter with the general run 
of work ; but when it comes to adding or subtracting from I" to 
V', the value of establishing ways of insuring correct thickness 
IS seen. While the cores generally need the most attention, 
the outside part often requires measuring to insure correctness. 
A good plan to insure the thickness wanted is, to take the size 
of the first part swept upon a narrow stick when the mould or 
core is finished or blacked ; then, when sweeping the second 
part, gauge the mould or core, as the case may be, by the meas- 
urement taken from the first part. By this means, if one does 
not get the first part the size called for, he has at least a 
chance to insure obtaining the proper thickness. 



70 REVOLVING CORE AND UNDER-SURFACE SWEEPING. 

A third advantage the plan of sweeping shown has over the 
revolving sweep is, that the moulder can stand still ; thereby 
saving labor and the making of a circus-pedestrian of himself. 
A stranger to this plan would be surprised to see with what 
ease heavy cores can be revolved. Cores as large as nine feet 
in diameter, and seven feet high, have been sw^pt here by 
revolving them. For heavy or high cores there are two plans 
shown in Fig. 25, one of which it is sometimes found necessary 
to adopt in order to steady the core when being swept up with 
loam. One of these is to use steady ing-bolts, as shown, or 
swivel-screws. Three or four such bolts or screws may be 
used, running from the bottom ring up to a top-steadying flange, 
as shown. This is a good plan to adopt for cores of large 
diameter. The brickwork seen inside of these bolts is to rep- 
resent a high core being held steady by a top brace bolted to 
the spindle, as seen at S, and then wedged. Such braces are 
generally required when cores 18" to 72" diameter are lougei 
than four to five feet. It should be remembered that the braces 
are not used during the bricking-up of the mould, but only 
during the rubbing-on of the loam. It keeps the core rigid, so 
as to assist in its being swept true. The size of the spindle 
given, Fig. 25, is that for cores ranging from four feet up to 
nine feet diameter. The spindle at Fig. 24 is for work under 
the al)ove sizes. 

'I'he floor-level and pit marked shows how we use the arrange- 
ment. A pit of the depth shown is very handy for our general 
run of work. The diameter of the pit being about ten feet, 
there is room to walk around. The mud and bricks are kept on 
the floor, so that, in first starting to build, there is no stooping 
down to reach material. Then, when the core is built two or 
three feet, the pit is readily planked over to enable reaching up 
higher. The pit was originally made in order to procure more 
height for hoisting : of course, where the crane is high enough, 
one could dispense with the pit if it were desirable. Before 



REVOLVING CORE AND UNDER-SURFAOE SWEEPING. 71 

removing the top luin for phiciug on pkites, or to hoist tlie core, 
it is generally necessary to have the under side of core blocked. 
For this purpose wooden horses come very handy. The one seen 
at Fig. 30 will be suggestive of how they may be placed. Fig. 
27 is a plan view of H, Fig. 25. The long arm X is attached, 
simply to show that the same rig can be used for larger cores, 
by extending the lugs. It was by such a rigging that the centre 
core shown in the article upon ''Casting Whole or in Parts," 
p. oG, was made and lowered in the mould. When the core 
was trued by the set-screws there described, the keys at TT 
were taken out ; and after this, those at TF, which let the plate 
-ff fall down to the bottom of the pit. The spindle, now being 
released, was hoisted out, and the hole in top of the core filled 
up as there described. For that job the 3" spindle was the one 
used. 



72 SWEEPING GROOVED-CONE DKUMS, 



SWEEPING GROOVED-CONE DRUMS. 

The machine shown (p. 73) is intended for sweeping either 
right or left hand grooved drums of cylindrical, conical, or 
curved shape, and of any pitch desired. 

The originator of this device, S. B. Whiting, M.E., of Potts- 
ville, Penn., first used it in 1867 or 1868, since which time a 
great number and variety of grooved drums have been reported 
as made with it. At the right are sections of what were no 
doubt very large cone-castings to make. The one in Fig. 32 was 
of twelve and twenty feet diameters, with a height of about six 
feet. Our trade is under obligations to Mr. Whiting. Among 
our best moulders, but very few have any knowledge or idea of 
cone-drum sweeping ; and upon reading this many will, like the 
author, feel like tendering Mr. Whiting thanks for allowing the 
publication of his device. 

The engravings are from photographs taken from a model, 
therefore the proportions will differ somewhat from those of a 
full-sized working machine ; and, while to many the three views 
will give a clear idea of the machine, there are those for whom 
it might be well to give a detailed description. 

^, Fig. 33, is a spindle that is held stationary in the base. 
Fitted to work upon and around this spindle is a sleeve K. To 
guide and hold the arm £" at a right angle to /r, is the cross- 
head centre P. The arms R and X are firmly secured to sleeve 
if, and therefore will cause the latter to rotate around the 
spindle A when operating the machine. The cross-head P 
slides up or down upon the sleeve K^ being controlled in its 
motion by the screw D. The bar E (carrymg at its end the 
former or sweep F) slides in the cross-head guides SS, and is 
controlled in its movements, lengthwise, by the bar or former 



SWEEPING GKOOVED-CONE DRUMS. 



73 



T, which may be set at any angle, and may be straight, curved, 
or of an irregular form. The gear H being fast to the spindle 




S.B.Whitlng^a 
Cone Drui/i Sweeping Machine 



iH'^^ >l 



A, the screw D will be turned whenever the bar E is swept 
around the mould. By changing the gear on the screw D and 



74 SWEEPING GROOVED-CONE DRUMS. 

spindle A, any pitch may be obtained ; and, by inserting either 
one or two intermediate gears, a right or left hand pitch may 
be obtained. The opposite side-view of Fig. 33 is shown in 
Fig. 34. As will be seen at N, the bar E is there guided, as 
well as at SS, Fig. 33. Fig. 35 is a plan view of the interme- 
diate and principal gears. As there are four wheels, the use 
of the two, Y'and M, may not appear plain. These gears ( Y 
and M) neither increase nor decrease speed, but are simply for 
making either right or left drums or pitches. Were wheels 
required for one-hand sweeping only, then these gears would 
not be required, unless the centres A and V were so far apart 
that they were necessary to transmit motion. 

As shown, the intermediate gear M is the one engaged with 
the large wheel H^ and will produce a right-hand drum or 
pitch. To produce a left-hand drum, the thumb-screw TF, 
Fig. 34, is loosened, and the gear Y is made to engage direct 
with the large wheel H and pinion V. 

The screw D should, according to the diameter of the mould, 
be set to balance the bar E, in about the relation to the centres 
between the sleeve K and bar T, as here shown. In other 
words, the screw D should be set so as to balance, at an aver- 
age, the bar E in its up or downward movement. 

When arranging gears for moulds of large diameters, the 
gears y and Jf could, to save using a large centre-wheel and 
pinion, be reversed so as to stand between the pinion V and 
large wheel H. To make an opposite hand drum, the two 
pinions would require to be replaced by three smaller ones. 
For making small-sized moulds of right-hand pitch, only the 
gear ^and pinion I'^'may be required. 

In tiguring the relation of gears to give desired-sized moulds, 
the pitch of the leading screw D will be the regulator. As an 
example, we will suppose the leading screw D to have ^" pitch. 
(By pitch is meant that every time the screw revolves once, the 
thread would cause a nut to rise in height ^".) Now, suppos- 
ing there was to be a cone made having a 2" pitch, as seen in 



SWEEPING GROOVED-CONE DRUMS. 75 

section, Fig. 36 : the arrangement should be such as to cause the 
sweep F^ Fig. 33, to rise in height 2" every time the sweep 
revolves once. Knowing that the leading-screw rises \" every 
revolution, the gears must be made so that, in every revolution 
of the sweep, the leading-screw will revolve four times, in order 
to raise the sweep 2" in one revolution. Now, knowing that 
the leading-screw pinion V must revolve four times in order to 
raise the sweep 2" in one revolution, it will be seen that the 
large wheel H must contain four times the number of teeth that 
the pinion has ; therefore, if the pinion has, say, twelve teeth, 
the large wheel must have forty-eight teeth. 

Did one wish to make a mould having grooves of 3" pitch, by 
using the same ^" pitch leading-screw, the gears V and H would 
require changing so as to cause the pinion V to revolve six 
times to once of the sweep. 

To construct a \" pitch with the above leading-screw, the 
gears would require changing so as to cause the pinion to 
revolve twice to once of the sweep. For the construction of 
any fraction of the above pitches, the gears would, of course, 
require proportionally changing. 

The pitch for the leading-screw would, for general work, be 
better if \". The ^" pitch could, of course, be used, but such 
a coarse feed for fine pitches is objectionable. For grooves 
above 2" pitch, \" pitch leading-screw would be best. 

The spindle A is not necessarily secured in such a base as 
shown. The idea is simply that it must be firmly held in some- 
thing that will remain stationary. While the spindle is shown 
here self-supporting, it would be better for general work were 
the top supported by a brace. To do this, the spindle would 
require to be prolonged farther above the wheel than here 
shown. 

While there are no sizes given, any one requiring such a 
machine can very readily, from the views and description, pro- 
portion and construct such a machine as the size of a job may 
require. 



76 SWEEPING GROOVED DRUMS IN LOAM. 



SWEEPING GROOVED DRUMS IN LOAM. 

The two engravings, one on p. 77 and the other on p. 79, 
each representing a different plan of sweeping a large grooved 
drum in loam, are not only instructive in so far as they repre- 
sent practical processes, but are interesting, in connection with 
that shown on p. 73, as showing that the trade of the moulder 
demands the exercise of talents of a high order. I am indebted 
to the courtesy of David Matlock, manager of the I. P. Morris 
Company's foundry, Philadelphia ; and Homer Hamilton, of 
the Hamilton Works, Youngstown, O., — for being able to 
present to my readei's these plans, which are well worth the 
consideration of practical men. 

In the plan adopted by Mr. Matlock (Fig. 38), a spiral 
groove, as shown, is cut for nearly the entire length of the 
spindle. The pitch of this groove is made the same as the 
pitch of the grooved drum is intended to be ; and a set screw 
projects through the arm of the sweep, and enters the groove 
in the spindle. Of course it is plain, that, in revolving the 
sweep, it will have a corresponding spiral movement. 

Mr. Hamilton's plan (Fig. 37) involves the use of a plate jB, 
the working-face of which is turned up in a screw-cutting lathe 
to the desired pitch. At F is represented a piece about 8'' 
long, dowelled to the main plate so as to be readily removed. 
The roller at E permits the sweep to be easily revolved. The 
drums, for the making of which this plan was originated, were 
14 feet in diameter, and 7 feet A" in length. They were stiff- 
ened by inside ribs and flanges, and had 6" outside flanges at 
ends. They were poured by dropping the metal from the top, 
^ud, when done, were said to be first-class castings. 



SWEEPING GROOVED DRUMS IN LOAM. 



77 



I will not dwell upou forming the inside of drums, as that is 
a matter of secondary importance compared with sweeping the 
outside or groove portion of drums. 




Fig. 37. 

In the loaming or swee[)ing-up of a mould, a straight sweep 
is generally first used; after which this is detached, and the 



78 SWEEPi^^ GROOVED DRUMS IN LOAM. 

sweep for forming the grooves attached. In both cuts, the 
grooved portion of the sweep is shown in black. This portion 
of the sweep could be made of sheet or boiler iron plates, as 
the projections are very easily broken if of wood ; or this ytor- 
tion could be wood, faced with a thin sheet-iron plate, as 
represented at Y (Fig. 38). This strengthens the wood, and 
prevents the working-edge of the sweep from rapidly wearing 
away. At V the working portion of the sweep is shown to be 
all iron, made so as to be removed, thereby allowing for attach- 
ing either a straight or a grooved sweep, as shown at M and A". 
The cut of Mr. Hamilton's rigging shows the inclined plate 
in place ready to sweep the grooves. This plate is not so 
placed until after the mould is roughly swept up with the 
straight sweep, which is done by letting the sweep rest and 
revolve upon the collar A, which, as now seen, is dropped out 
of contact, in order to show the position of the sweep when 
forming the grooves, the inclined plate B having been lowered 
to the bottom holding-step T. Then, after the straight sweep 
has done its work, the inclined plate is raised to its proper posi- 
tion, and held by the set screw shown in B, after which the 
collar A is dropped out of contact, so as to allow the sweep to 
travel in a spiral direction. The sweep starts at F; and when 
it has passed away from F this piece is removed, allowing 
the sweep to travel more than the whole circumference of the 
grooves. The sweep is then returned, F being replaced, and 
another revolution is made ; and so on to the end. This plan 
causes the sweep to be turned back over the same surface every 
revolution it makes, and is very objectionable, for it is apt to 
tear and rough up the surface of the mould. To avoid this, the 
dowelled piece F can be left out, and, when the sweep comes to 
the step, let it drop down upon the starting-point of the incline. 
To do this, there will of course be left a narrow strip the entire 
length of the sweep, that cannot have the grooves formed : as 
this strip needs to be but ^", or such a matter, wider than the 



SWEEPING GROOVED DRUMS IN LOAM. 



79 



sweep, it cau very readily be filled up after the balance of the 
grooves are finished ; and then, after leaving the starting-point, 
the piece F can be set so that when the sweep gets around, it 



31 

09" 




can be made to travel more than the whole circumference, 
thereby sweeping off that portion or strip of the grooves which 
was filled up. By this plan the sweep is always travelling in 
the same direction, and the little strip to be filled can be swept 



dO SWEEPING GROOVED DRUMS IN LOAM. 

with one revolution if the job is intelligently performed. Of 
the two plans, the latter one is decidedly the best to adopt. 

In loaming or sweeping up the grooves, the method adopted 
should depend upon the size or pitch of the grooves, and also 
upon the nature of the loam. If the grooves are not over |" 
deep, and the loam a fair stiffening kind, the grooves may be 
swept up without much delay. But should the loam be a slow 
stiffening kind, it might be advisable to partly dry the inside of 
the mould with a basket fire, having the top of the mould cov- 
ered over with sheet-iron plates to keep in the heat. This plan 
in the case of larger grooves, with the best of loam, might 
often be advisable. Of course, the reader is to understand, by 
drying the mould before sweeping the grooves, that the mould 
has been swept by a straight sweep ; and, by partly drying the 
loam forming the straight part, it presents a dry body to absorb 
the moisture of the loam used when forming the grooves. 

In the case of very large grooves, it might be necessary to 
use the groove sweep when building up the brickwork, so as 
to build the bricks projecting into the grooves, which would, of 
course, often necessitate breaking the bricks. Again, for 
forming grooves, loam bricks or cakes might be made the circle 
and thickness wanted, and when building up the mould use a 
four-inch common brick wall upon the outside of the loam- 
cakes. The cakes being made the proper size for the job, there 
should be very little time lost in waiting for the loam to stiffen 
when sweeping up the mould. The above plans are only given 
as ideas, as I could not recommend any plan unless the special 
requirements of a job are known. However, they are all worth 
remembering ; as, with a little judgment, it would be but a sim- 
ple matter for one to know which would be the best to adopt 
for his special job. 

The details of any work of this character call for the exercise 
of individual judgment on the part of the moulder, as no cast- 
iron rules can be made for jobs that in each case will probably 
possess peculiar features. 



MOULDING WiOPELLEK- WHEELS IN L^iM. 81 



MOULDING PROPELLER-WHEELS IN LOAM. 

The making of propeller-wheels has, perhaps, in the devis- 
ing of rigging and plans, brought about more study and thought 
than any other class of castings. To a man not practised in 
the art of moulding, a propeller-wheel, from its general crook- 
edness, seems to present many difficulties ; but to a moulder 
accustomed to making such wheels, the job seems simple 
enough. What troubles loam-moulders not accustomed to 
making wheels, is to devise rigging with which to make them. 
Give them the rigging, and they will do the job more easily 
than I can write an article on so crooked a subject. 

The principle of a propeller-wheel is that of a screw working 
in a nut, the water forming the nut ; but, while the ordinary 
screw working in a metal nut is a true screw, in the case of the 
propeller-wheel it is not always a true screw ; and sometimes, 
on account of this irregularity, it will be made from a pattern 
instead of being swept up. 

The engravings represent making a propeller-wheel nine feet 
diameter and fifteen feet pitch — true or regular pitch. Some 
of the different plans of moulding, as well as means for deter- 
mining the angle and pitch of blades, are also given. 

The right-angled triangle shown is for the purpose of illus- 
trating the method of obtaining the angles of different sections 
of a blade. In a wheel of true pitch, the angles are not the 
same at any two points in its length. This will be better under- 
stood by reference to the blade-sections K and P (Fig. 39). 
K shows the angle at a distance of four feet, and P at about 
eight feet and a half in diameter. To determine the angle at 



82 MOULDING PROPELLER-WHEELS IN LOAM. 

any other diameter, it is only necessary to draw a line from the 
assumed diameter to the top of the pitch or angle. In making 
a templet to obtain the angle for any desired blade, it is imma- 
terial how large or how small the blade is. It is only requisite 
to have the circumference and pitch lines drawn at right angles 
to the same scale ; then, by equally dividing the circumference 
or base-line into feet or inches, as the diameter answering to the 
circumference calls for, we can then get the angle at any required 
diameter. The right-angled triangle, or " templet," here shown 
has its circumference, or base line, laid off for ten feet. Some 
may wonder why ten feet is used, when the wheel is only nine 
feet. The diameter inscribed by the "adjustable guide" is, as 
shown, one foot larger than that of the wheels ; therefore, as 
the sweep works upon the "adjustable guide," and the angle 
of the wheel or pitch is formed by it, the desired distance from 
the centre, when striking off the blades, must be the working- 
base taken in laying off the pitch or angle of the wheel. 

In moulding propeller- wheels in loam, a section, or some- 
times the whole of the level bed, is first swept up. At the 
outer edge, some will sweep a seat as shown at F^ or in its 
place make the bed level, and at this point scribe a mark by 
passing around the bed-sweep. This mark is for the purpose 
of setting the " adjustable sweep-guide," shown on the side 
opposite F. The adjustable feature is something that I believe 
to be an improvement over any plan I have ever seen used. 
After this bed is swept, and divided off into as many blades 
as required, the false hub is swept up with bricks and loam. 
Around this hub a V-bead is swept, to assist in marking off the 
blade. After the hub is finished, the hub-sweep is removed, 
and the sweep for the surface of the blade is attached to the 
iron arm. Where this arm works against the spindle, two 
sheaves, EE, are shown. Another view of this is shown at H. 

So far as I know, this idea of using the sheaves is original, 
as I have no knowledge of their being so used. It seems 



MOULDING PROPELLER-WHEELS IN LOAM. 83 

reasonable, however, that, if used iu this wa}-, there would be 
greater freedom of up-and-down movements than when there 
is simply a round hole through the arm. 

When the blade-sweep is secured iu place, the " sweep- 
guide " is set so that its base point A (seen in the front view) 
is at the dividing-line mark, as seen at 4 in the plan view. Or 
this guide may be set by a centre mark, as shown in the front 
view at D. The blade-sweep being let down until its workiug- 
edge is at the centre or V-bead on the hub, the sweep-guide is 
moved until the centre D is directlj' under the working-edge 
of the blade-sweep, which, by the way, should also radiate 
from the centre of the spindle ; this point being provided for 
in making the arm. 

All being now readj^ for building the nowel brickwork or 
bottom part of the mould, this may be done in different ways. 
One way would be to build up brickwork to about 1" of the in- 
tended bottom of the mould, and then the space from this to 
the intended cope surface could in the thickest parts be par- 
tially filled with loam-cakes to absorb the moisture from the 
wet loam. The thinner parts of the blade and joint could be 
made up entirely of soft loam. 

Another plan is to screw a thickness sweep to the blade-cope 
surface sweep, which should project below its working-surface 
at an angle equal to the distance of the thickness of the blade 
at its centre section. With this sweep the loam can be swept 
off so as to give a bottom to build a thickness on. 

Still another plan would be to make the bottom surface and 
thickness of all dry-sand mixture. To do this the bricks should 
l>e kept about 4" at the bottom and 9" at the top below the 
intended bottom surface of the blades. This space should then 
be partly filled with cinders ; thus avoiding the building and 
drying of a large body of brickwork, besides permitting the 
blades to be properly vented, — a very essential feature. Over 
these cinders the dry sand is rammed and struck off to form 



84 MOULDING PROPELLER-WHEELS IN LOAM, 

the surface of the blades and the joint. It is not necessary 
that the central portion W should be built up, in building up 
the blade thickness in dry sand or loam. All that is necessary 
is to have surface enough to mark out the blade, and have a 
solid joint. 

In marking off the blade, a centre line is struck by stopping 
the sweep at the centre of the hub. 

It may be here remarked, that to prevent mistakes it would 
also be well, in connection with the V-bead, to make a mark on 
the base F, which may be done by dropping a plumb-bob from 
the sweep before the building-up is begun. This mark can be 
(easily preserved ; and if the V-bead is broken, or the sweep 
moved, it is left to work from. 

After the centre line is drawn, as shown on the plan view at 
N, the diameter of the wheel is marked by running up the 
sweep, to which is screwed a sharp-pointed scriber at S. 
Inside the diameter another mark, B, is scribed for points 
from which to describe the rounded corners of the blades. 

After this, any number of radius lines required for la3ing off 
the width of blade at different points can be made. 

In some wheels, the boundaries of the blades are radial lines 
to the rounded corners, as shown at XX. 

To assist in getting the form of irregularly shaped blades, it 
is well to have a thin wooden or tin frame templet made to bend 
to the shape of the joint ; this templet being the shape of the 
blade, and centred from the line N. The form of the blade 
is then marked off, and the thickness cut out by either of the 
following plans. 

In the first plan (which is the best for those unused to mak- 
ing propeller-wheels), on the blade as shown at F, are eight 
wooden gauges, each representing the thickness at different 
diameters, as P and K. The proper positions having been 
marked by the scriber, each gauge is bedded into the blade-bed 
so as to be even with the surface. This being done, the sand 



MOULDING PROPELLER-WHEELS IN LOAM. 85 

or loam between the gauges is taken out, and one by one the 
gauges are removed and the blade finished up. In the other 
plan, less gauges are used, the eye being more depended upon 
for the shape : hence this plan requires practice. 

After the blade has been finished, the thickness is filled up 
with moulding-sand, the surface again swept off and sleeked. 
The blade-sweep and guide are then removed, and the rest of 
the nowels or bottoms of the blades swept up. 

The joint or parting being ready, the next thing is building 
the cope. Two plans are shown : the upper one, Y, will first 
be considered. This cope is made in three sections, B, F, and 
S, held together with bolts. The section B has a number of 
projections cast on it, which increase in length from the bottom 
up, the projection A" being about on a level with the top of 
the hub. These projections are for the purpose of supporting 
ci'ossbars to carr}' the brickwork. The bars may be 2" square, 
and placed about 4^" apart. The ends nearest the hub are 
tied to the supporter, shown, to assist in lifting the hub-end 
when the cope is hoisted. The cope is lifted by the handles 2, 
4, and 6. 

On the section F are staples, one being shown with a cross- 
bar through it. There should be as many of these staples as 
the width of blade requires cross-bars. After the cross-bars 
are all in, and firmly wedged, the space is filled with loam and 
bricks : the brick being set endwise will make the thickness 
of cope about 9". These bricks must be firmly laid, and the 
space above and below the cross-bars should be solidly filled 
with pieces of brick and loam. When all the bricks in the cope 
are laid, the surface is plastered over with a coat of loam, to add 
to its strength and make an even surface. 

In the lower cut, a plan of making the cope is represented 
that involves less labor. In this plan, V Fare bars about 2" 
thick, 8" wide, and long enough to lap over each side of the 
joint about 3". 



86 MOULDING PROPELLER-WHEELS IN LOAM. 

The two large holes seen are for passing a sti'ong bar tlirough 
to hoist the cope off. These holes arc above the centre, to 
leave the bottom the heaviest. At the bottom of these bars are 
two small round holes. Into these are hitched swivels, so that 
by adjusting them the cope can be lifted evenly. The square 
holes are for the insertion of cross-rods, shown at 8. 

At the outer end of these cross-rods, stout wire is often 
wound to help in holding the brickwork. The brickwork is 
built the same as in the instance of the cope first mentioned. 

After the copes are all built up, the joints are loam marked, 
and the false hub taken out. Before the copes can be lifted, 
they must be partially or wholly dried. In some shops that 
are provided with pi'oper facilities for handling and drying such 
a wheel, the whole would be dried at once ; and when about dry, 
it would be taken from the oven, the copes hoisted and turned 
up, and the mould surface finished. The newels also being fin- 
ished, both parts are again run into the oven, and thoroughly 
dried, after which the mould is got ready for casting. 

When such moulds cannot be hoisted with a crane, or where 
the oven is not large enough to take the whole mould in, a 
sheet-iron curb, or, in case of large moulds, a temporary brick 
wall, is built around them, and some fireplaces made, so that a 
hot steady fire can be kept up with coal or coke without the 
necessit}^ of uncovering the mould, as must be done if the fire 
are built inside the curb or wall. Charcoal and sometimes wood 
are used, not only at the bottom of the mould, but at top of the 
copes as well. 

Sometimes, when oven room will not permit holding of both 
cope and nowel, after the mould has been dried sufficiently to 
lift the copes, it is uncovered, the copes lifted and finished, and 
run into the oven to complete the drying. Then the nowels 
are finished ; and, being covered over, the fire is again started, 
and kept up till they are thoroughl}' dried. 

Another plan in making large wheels is to build each blade 



MOULDING rKOPinXER M'lIKELS IN LOAM. 87 

on a separate plate ; then, after marking them, they can he 
placed in the oven to dry. This plan involves a little more 
labor, but it may often be more than balanced by convenience 
in drying. 

Wheels are cast in two ways. As above described, the work- 
ing-side of the blade is cast up, which is objected to by some on 
account of the dirt. But few changes are required to cast the 
working-side down. In casting this side down, instead of using 
the wooden. sections, as seen at blade I", to cut out the blade 
thickness as above described, they are reversed ; and, after being 
set in place, a few nails are placed in the sides and end to pre- 
vent their moving. The space between them is then filled with 
moulding-sand ; which being struck off, the shape of the blade 
is formed, over which the cope is built. By this plan, there is 
more certainty of the blade having its proper shape on the back, 
and more nearly correct shape of section. For irregularly 
shaped blades, this plan is generally preferable. The forming 
of the nowel, or working-side of the wheel, is done when this 
part is built by the use of the sweep shown. 

At the bottom of the "blade-surface sweep," is shown a 
dotted curved line ; also at the working-edge of the " adjustable 
sweep-guide." These are for showing that propeller sweeping 
IS not confined to straight lines. 

The hanging sheave, usually hung from a beam overhead, 
should be as nearly over the spindle as possible. It is used, as 
will be inferred, for raising and lowering the sweep when form- 
ing a blade. Some, in using a sweep-lifter, have it connected 
with the top of the spindle. The spindle is made longer than 
here shown, and, having a long pin projecting above its end, 
admits of cheeks containing two sheaves revolving upon it. 

The weight shown is a hollow iron box ; which is weighted as 
required, as it is very important that the weight be accurately 
adjusted to the requirements. 

In getting the mould ready for casting, some fasten down the 



88 MOULDING PROPELLEll-WHEELS IN LOAM. 

copes by meaus of a cross placed over the mould, so as not to 
interfere with the gates. From the cross-ends, slings or bolts 
will be secured to the four bottom handles. 

Then, again, some will secure the copes b}^ bolting them to 
staples cast in the bottom plate, as seen at C C Instead of 
these staples, some have oblong holes cast in the bottom plate, 
and, by inserting T-headed bolts, fasten down the copes. Of 
the two plans, the latter is the better, as the staples stick up 
and are in the way more or less. 

In securing the circumference of the mould, if it is not 
rammed up in a pit, wrought-iron sheet-curbing is bolted 
together, and the space of about 8" allowed between it and the 
circumference of the mould rammed-up with sand, — similar to 
the ramming up of any ordinar}' loam-mould. The wheels are 
generally poured by dropping the metal from the top of the hub 
of the wheel ; and flow risers are generally placed, one upon 
the surface of each of the upper edges of the blade. 



MOULDING AN HVDllAULlC UOlST CASTING. 89 



MOULDING AN HYDRAULIC HOIST CASTING 
IN DRY SAND. 

The engraving (Fig. 40) herewith shown pi*esents ideas of 
gating and coring that may often be found useful. The casting, 
when done, was finished its entire length to an exact size, and 
required to be clean and sound. The mould was made b}' the 
use of a sweep attached to a spindle, one end of which had a 
bearing in the journal P, and the other end in a strap, not 
shown, which was bolted to the end of the flask through the 
holes E E, seen in the end view. 

Before blacking the mould, the nmner and gates were cut. 
One gate admitted the metal at the bottom ; and, as the mould 
filled up, the metal entered through the side gates. These 
gates were made slanting from the runner upward, in order to 
help to prevent the mould from cutting or scabbing. With a 
gate thus cut, it is very evident that little or no iron can run 
nito the mould until the metal has risen in the mould nearly up 
to tlie slanting gates. If this can be accomplished, there is 
very little danger of the core or mould surface being cut upon 
the metal entering the mould, which would, of course, be ver}' 
liable to spoil the casting. 

Some one may feel like asking, Why are there so many side 
gates ? and could not the mould be run entirely from the bottom 
gate? The mould could be run by one bottom gate ; but by its 
use alone the metal, as it rose upwards, would be sluggish and 
dull, thereby retarding the dirt from floating up to the top of 
the casting, about six inches of which is cut otf . By having 
the gates as shown, there will be about as hot metal to fill the 



90 MOULDING AN HYDRAULIC HOIST CASTING. 

top portion of the mould as there is at the bottom, thereby 
assisting the dirt to float up to the riser head. 

The upper portion of the pourh)g runner will ])e seen to be 
2i-", while below it is 3". The idea I had in making the upper 
part smaller was to assist the slanting inlet gates in preventing 
the metal from running into the mould until the proper time. 
Had the runner been 2^" for its entire length, it would most 
likely have filled, so as to make one unbroken column of flow- 
ing metal, thereby causing the metal to run into the mould 
through every side gate. By having the runner as shown, it 
is evident that the 3" portion would take metal faster than was 
admitted through the 2J" part, thereby assisting in preventing 
the metal in runner from rising much higher than that in the 
mould. 

Some may think it would be a good plan to use horn-gates, 
as seen attached to the cope section, A B, in the place of the 
straight gates. It would certainly assist the dirt to rise if the 
metal whirled ; but if the horn-gates were used, the extra labor 
they would make would hardly be paid for in what little benefit 
might be derived ; especially as the chaplets would tend to stop 
the whirling of the metal. However, if used, they would 
require to be set slanting upwards. 

The gates, Nos. 28 and 29, are shown cut into a projection, 
a wrinkle founded upon a principle that could be applied to the 
making of many castings. The first one of these castings I 
made had a defect, in the shape of a hole about |" deep in front 
of each of the upper gates, 28, 29. By the use of a little com- 
mon-sense, I saw what I should have thought of before, which 
is simply that a light body of iron will contract faster than a 
heavy one. The runner being much the smallest body, its 
length would naturally contract faster than that of the easting ; 
and, in doing this, the weakest point must break. In this case, 
tne weakest point was where the gate connected with the 
casting. The surface of the casting being in a half-molten 



MOULDING AN HYDRAULIC HOIST CASTING. 01 

condition, the gate would carry away a portion of it. By 
enlarging the casting about f" at this point (which was about 
the depth of hole the withdrawal of gate would leave) , there 
was no further trouble. The projection, in cleaning the casting, 
is, of course, chipped off, which would then leave it, at this 
point, full and sound. 

In the core as set into the mould, there will be seen two small 
necks, F and K. The diameter at F being only 2^, I did not 
think it would safely support the weight of the upper core when 
the flask was upon its end ; therefore I devised the plan of 
hanging the core from the flask, as shown. 

With the exception of the wrought-iron rods, shown in the 
neck /r, and at F, the core-arbor is all cast-iron. In making 
this arbor, its form was marked off on a level bed, and then cut 
out with a gate-cutter ; the rods K and V being set in. The 
horn-pricker shown was then pushed into the sand at about 
every 9" along the length of the mould, as seen by the projec- 
tions on the arbor. In the upper end of each arbor, there were 
cast two nuts, Y. Into these were screwed bolts, S S, the 
heads of the bolts being screwed up tight against the wrought- 
iron plates, XX (the thickness of which is one inch). Between 
these plates and the end of the core-arbor were placed wrought- 
iron wedges, D D. The plates X X not only held up the core, 
but they also held down the core when the mould was poured, 
as will be seen by the four bolts at RRRR on the end view of 
flask. These four bolts are screwed into holes tapped into the 
end of the flask, and the plates screwed down tightly, thereby 
making a firm, reliable rigging for the purpose intended. 

Another point of interest is the plan by which the core was 
made. Ordinarily a full core-box would be made, and this 
might be the cheapest plan were there many cores to make ; 
but for the few wanted, their construction by the use of sweeps 
was a saving of at least fifteen dollars. In making the core, 
tiie core-plates were levelled and firmly set upon the oven car- 



92 MOULDING AN HYDRAULIC HOIST CASTING. 

riage. The centre of the plate was then found, and a line 
drawn. The length of the core, from the end F to the neck 
A", was then laid off, the blocks M and N placed on ; and after 
being set and marked around, these blocks were lifted, and 
about one inch thickness of core sand placed upon the plate. 
The core-arbor was set upon this, and, after being centred and 
found to be otherwise correct, the blocks M and N were set on 
their marks and the core rammed up. For forming the longi- 
tudinal straight portion of the core, the straight sweep shown 
was used. For the taper longitudinal portion of the core, the 
taper sweep shown was used. The dotted line on this sweep 
represents the straight portion of the core. The taper sweep 
was cut out, as represented, in order to clear the portion of the 
core formed by the straight sweep. The taper sweep could 
have been used half its length, had there been another block 
like iV placed at H. After being dried, the halves were blacked 
and rolled over, after which a vent was filed along their centres. 
The top half of the core was then rolled back ; and, being 
hoisted by the four lifting-hooks, it was lowered upon the bot- 
tom half, and gently rubbed until a close joint was formed. 

It might be well to state that the sweep and blocks were 
made about ^" out of a true circle, being the largest in the 
direction of the vertical section. This is indicated by the dif- 
ference between the vertical and horizontal measurements on 
the "straight sweep," and was to allow for the core sagging 
and for rubbing down. Had this not been allowed for, the core 
would have been far from being a round one. Rubbing it 
down made a close joint, which assisted in keeping the metal 
from getting into the joint-vent of the core. 

After being rubbed and found to be all right, the top half 
was hoisted, and the joint brushed off and carefully spread with 
flour-paste. It was then again lowered, and the two halves 
bolted together, as shown in the longitudinal section. 

No. 30 shows a section of cut tubes, 3" in diameter, placed 



MOULDING AN HYDKAULIC llOltST CASTING. 93 

when the core was made. This is for the purpose of making 
a clean, firm hole, upon which to lay the washers, 31, for 
screwing down the bolts W. 

The section AB, marked " cope," shows the position of the 
chaplets around the core ; and the longitudinal sectional plan of 
mould shows the number that were used for securing it length- 
wise. The two lower chaplets were placed at the joint's surface 
in order to give the core about the same hold sideways at the 
lower end as the print gave at the upper end. 

Before setting the nowel and cope chaplets, the core was 
carefully calipered, and the diameter of the mould measured. 
At every bearing-place of the chaplet, the mould and core meas- 
urements were compared, and thereby the exact thickness of 
metal obtained, so that when the core was set it would be in the 
centre of the mould. 

The cope was then tried on ; there being flour under the cope 
chaplets on the top of the core, to see if they touched as they 
should to make a safe, reliable, chapleted core. In closing 
the flask (there being no pins) , the only guides were the bottom 
spindle- journal P, and feeling the joint at the top through the 
risers 33 and 34. When the cope was hoisted, and every thing 
found to be right, the iron joint was pasted, and the cope 
lowered for good. After being firmly secured with bolts and 
clamps, the joint was carefully packed with wet loam, especially 
at the lower end, in order to prevent any run-out. The riser- 
holes and pouring-runner were stopped with waste to keep out 
dirt ; and the flask was then hoisted upon end, and placed in 
the pouring-pit. 

The pit being only about nine feet deep, it was necessary to 
build staging for reaching the pouring-basin and feeding-head ; 
and also, to pour the mould, the basin support shown was made 
because of having to pour so high above the ground. 

The nuts 35 and 36 were screwed into tapped holes in the 
flask ; and, to assist them in holding up the basin, scantlings 



94 MOULDING AN HYDRAULIC HOIST CASTING. 

were placed, runuing from the outer edge of the plate on a 
slant to the flask. The euds of the scantlings rested upon the 
handles of the flask, which are not shown. With the exception 
of the first defect mentioned, the castings came sound and 
clean. 



CRUSHING AND FINNING CASTINGS. 90 



CRUSHING AND FINNING OF DRY-SAND AND 
LOAM CASTINGS. 

Having discussed the joints of green-saud moulds, p. 155, in 
order to conclude the subject, the question in relation to dry- 
sand and loam moulds would appear to be in order, the con- 
siderations of each branch being measurably distinct. A 
green-sand mould, if the joint is not disturbed, will close as 
nearly ^.ir-tight as it is before parting. Even if there are ir- 
regularities in the surface, they will often yield and bed them- 
selves in a way to make the joint tight. In a dry-sand or loam 
moujd, incompressibility of the material, and the fact that the 
joint is more or less distorted in drying, will prevent this, so 
that the joint will either be kept apart, or will crush in closing. 
' ' It is better to have a fin than a crush, " is an old adage that 
has frequently to be learned by sad experience. 

With dry-sand and loam moulds, then, it may be said that 
they should generally have a fin to prevent the probabilitj' of 
bad results. For this purpose the edges of the joint are cut or 
sleeked down, leaving an opening, shown at A", Fig. 41. In 
sleeking for a fin, there are three ways iu which it can be done. 
Sometimes it can be sleeked down at the edge of the pattern, 
as shown at P; then, after the cope has been rammed up and 
lifted off, the cope-joint shows a raised edge, as at B. This 
raise is then cut off, as represented at E, after which it is 
sleeked down, the same as the nowel at P. This makes a thick 
fin, which, for some jobs, is the safest, and often the best ; as, 
for instance, when there is a possibility of the joint being torn 
up in drawing the pattern, or when the flask is not well fitted. 



9a 



CRUSHING AND FINNING CASTINGS. 



The second plan, and one that makes a neat fuis is, not to 
sleek down the joint as at P, but leave it level, as at A. After 




the cope is lifted, both joints are then sleeked down. The 
pressure used in sleeking will, of course, to some extent regu- 



CRUSHING AND FINNING CASTINGS. 97 

late the thickness of the fin ; hut hy this plan it would require 
very heavy pressure to provide for a fin as thick as by the first 
method, as by that a portion of the joint surface is cut away 
before it is sleeked, and the cutting-away of the projection B 
not only lessens the surface, but also softens the sand so that 
it sleeks down easily. By the second plan, a thicker fin can be 
made by swabbing the joint before sleeking, than by sleeking 
at its natural dampness. 

Sometimes, with a good flask and a pattern that draws well 
(and particularl}' when the mo^dder is a careful man) , sleeking 
down the cope half of the mould will be sufficient. This makes 
a thinner fin than when both halves are sleeked down, but its 
safety depends upon the ability of the moulder to get his work 
down to a fine limit. 

For jobbing work I would establish the first plan, as it gives 
a doubt the preference. In such work, ill-fitting, unhandy 
flasks must often be used, as well as poor patterns, so that the 
second plan named would involve too much risk to be adopted 
by the majority of moulders or shops. 

At H is pictured the cause of some moulds being crushea, 
and the introduction of the castings to the scrap-heap. The fin 
should be largest at the edge of the mould, and taper back to 
nothing, the width being from 2" to 4". As represented at H, 
this is not provided for ; instead of an easy slant, as seen at 
/r, the trowel is pressed upon the edge of the joint, raising up 
back portions of the sand higher than the joint. When the 
cope is closed, and the two joints come together, the raised 
portions touch first ; and, of course, a crush is the result. As a 
rule, it is best not onh* to be sure of the opening for a fin at 
the edge of the mould, but also to sleek over the whole of the 
surface of the joint to make sure it does not touch hard in 
places, and that the joints of the flask shall come together, as 
shown on the side at K. 

It should not be understood, that, because the joint side K 



98 CRUSHING AND FINNING CASTINGS, 

shows a clearance over its whole body, larger surf ace- joints 
should be cut or sleeked down to allow of finning all over. The 
idea sought to be conveyed is, that sand-joints should not in 
any way prevent the flask coming together, as represented as 
doing at S. 

When there is a large area of joint fin, there is danger that 
the joint will hold the fin in shrinking, so that a piece will be 
pulled out of the casting, as shown in the cuts marked "Fin Y" 
and "Fin T," Fig. 42. I have often seen this result in cylinder 
and roll castings, the iron in which is generally hard, causing the 
fin to chill very quicklj- after the mould is poured ; and, of 



Fig. 42. 

course, in cooling, it shrinks. When the fin is large in area, 
or the joint irregular and the casting a thick one, there is the 
probability, that, when the fin commences to shrink, it will pull 
away from the casting, taking with it a piece of the frozen sur- 
face or edge of the casting, from the inner, more fluid mass. 

Sometimes a moulder may exercise proper care about the 
mould's fin part of the joint, but be careless where a runner or 
gate is cut, as shown at F, Fig. 41. It is essential that such 
parts should be finned, as the edges of the joint-gates and 
runners can be crushed as easily as any other part. If they are 



CRUSHING A^D FINNING CASTINGS. 99 

crushed, it introduces dirt into the mould, and, perhaps, pro- 
vides for a run-out. 

To guard against crushing, care should be taken that the 
flask-joints come together properly, and that they are not kept 
apart by dirt or rust. To this end, before starting to gagger 
or ram up the cope, it should be firmly bolted or clamped to 
the nowel, as represented at Z), Fig. 41. As a further precau- 
tion against the loss of a casting by the crushing of dry-sand 
moulds, it is often advisable to close them together, bolt or 
clamp them, then hoist off the cope, and examine the mould 
before casting them. In moulding cylinders in dry sand, this 
is especially to be commended. In some cases, I have the 
mould closed before any cores are set : then, with a lamp inside 
the mould, the joints can be plainly seen, and felt if uneven or 
overshot ; the thickness of fin can also be noted, and, if found 
too thin, can be cut out when the cope is raised up. 

Before leaving the subject of dry-sand joints, there is another 
point worthy of note. After the mould has been blacked, the 
joint should be washed over lightly with the same blacking, 
thinned with beer or molasses-water to a degree that will just 
blacken the joint-surface. The same treatment should be given 
the core-prints ; as it not only makes a better-looking mould, 
but by forming a hard skin prevents such parts from crumbling 
away when being brushed or handled. After blacking the 
joint, they should be sleeked to level down any lumps that may 
be on the surface. Often the blacking of the joint is neglected, 
or it is blacked with thick blacking, thereby increasing the 
thickness, making it liable to be crushed. Again, the joint will 
be wet until it is little better than a bed ofmtid, thereby getting 
it out of all reasonable shape. Either of these last-named 
operations is likely to bring about bad results. 

A consideration of the joints of loam-moulds embraces more 
than can be covered with a single article. Some of the features 
connected with this subject have been referred to in previous 

L.cfC. 



100 CRUSHING AND FINNING CASTINGS. 

articles, and a few points may be mentioned here. The joints 
of loam-moulds should be finued upon the same general prin- 
ciple as those of dry-sand moulds, but the finning is accom- 
plished differently. Instead of sleeking down the joints, they 
are generally scraped or shaved off. Two points are here 
illustrated, which, I believe, are not generally known or prac- 
tised. At W, Fig. 41, in the cylinder loam-mould, is shown a 
bead swept where the mould is to be jointed. By parting the 
joint in this way, the fin can generally be chipped off, and the 
surface smoothed with a file, so as to present scarcely any signs 
of the joint. This plan also provides for hiding overshotness, 
which will often occur in loam-castings. 

This bead is generally applicable to joints formed by a sweep, 
and for irregularly formed joints that require hand-work it can 
sometimes be used. Sometimes sections of loam-moulds are 
swept independently of each other, and closed together in get- 
ting ready to cast. For such moulds, the sweep can often be 
made so as to form the fin. In this way, the fin will be quite 
even in size, giving the casting a symmetrical appearance. 
Fins, at their best, are not an element of beauty, and the re- 
fined moulder will study to see that they mar the general ap- 
pearance of castings as little as possible. 



MAiaNG AND VENTING CORES, 101 



MAKING AND VENTING CORES. 

The subject of cores is a very important one in its relation to 
the production of good castings. Some years back it was cus- 
tomary in many shops for the moulders to make their own cores ; 
but at the present time core-making is coming to be a distinct 
branch, at least as much so as loam, dry-sand, or green-sand 
work. To excel in core-making is a credit equal to that of 
excelling in any other branches of the moulder's trade, as the 
success of the moulder in producing good castings is often 
largely dependent upon the skill of the core-maker. Take, for 
example, the casting of a steam-cylinder. As a rule, there is 
not much to fear with the outside. The main risk is in the 
cored parts. Cylinder cores, as a rule, with the exception of 
the centre core, may be classed as thin and crooked, and are 
much more difficult to make than larger cores. 

The question is often asked, How thin is it practicable to 
make and use cores? To answer this, it would be necessary 
to know the general shape of the core, and its position in the 
mould. A much lighter core can be used if set vertically than 
if it must be set and cast horizontally. When set vertically, 
there is a much better chance for the gas to escape ; as it is 
not so suddenly covered with iron in pouring, and there is no 
great lifting strain on a vertically set core. 

The greatest difficulty to be overcome in making thin cores is 
in roddiug and venting them : in fact, here is where the greatest 
skill in core-making is required. The chief cause of gases in 
cores is in the materials of which they are made ; and the least 
gas there is in a core to be got rid of, the better, other things 
being equal. 



102 MAKING AlsD VENTING CORES. 

A large amount of gas results from the use of flour. The 
gases from strongly-macle flour cores, in a small low-roofed 
shop, often render it untenable. Rosin evolves but little gas ; 
and hence in many cases its use is desirable, particularly as it 
vents and ignites easily. Rosin is comparatively but little 
used ; one reason being, no doubt, that it requires to be pulver- 
ized, and another that it requires more care to use than most 
material used for the purpose. Rosin cores will rarely admit 
of handling when hot, and are not so reliable for heavy castings ; 
also they cannot be so firmly and readily pasted together as 
flour cores. Sometimes, to assist in removing the objections 
stated, flour is used with rosin.' 

The chief use of rosin for making cores is in the instance of 
small cores, in which case it saves labor, because such cores for 
thin castings need not be blacked, and can be handled more 
readily when green than flour cores can be, and they assist in 
producing finer small castings than can be procured with flour. 

The blacking of a large number of small cores is not only 
tedious and costly, but it is often almost impossible to leave 
the corners as sharp and perfect as when they came from the 
box. If they can be used without being blacked as by the use 
of rosin, there is certainly an advantage gained. 

In mixing sand for small cores, two things are to be consid- 
ered : First, fine sand leaves a better surface on the castings ; 
second, the finer the sand, the less opportunity for the vent to 
get off : hence the question is, how fine sand can be used, and 
at the same time provide for proper venting. 

In making small rosin cores, moulding and bank sands are 
the best. If the venting will admit, smoother castings may be 
made by using the moulding-sand alone. If it is particularly 
desirable to save venting, then bank-sand is best. Sometimes 
bank and moulding sand can be mixed to good advantage. 

The amount of rosin that should be mixed with the sand is 
dependent upon the nature of the sand used, and the kind of 

1 For other binders than rosin and flour, see pages :iV>\i juid 3!);!, Vol. I. 




■■■'}• 



Mould 


"'/ 


Cast 


'■^ 




, 




It on 


Ito 


(it 








; 





— 





'yi^ 


^r 


— 


-A. 


'.._— 




^ 




;^'-.'V:; 




1 



Fig. 43. 



MAKING AND VENTING CORES. 103 

cores wanted. AVith ordinary new mouldiug-sand, one part 
rosiu to fifteen parts of sand will make good cores for ordinary 
work ; but if very strong cores are required, a larger proportion 
of rosiu may be used, or the sand strengthened with molasses 
water. In any case, it should be borne in mind, that, the 
weaker the core, the more freely the gas will escape. In some 
cases it is advisable to mix a small quantity of flour with the 
rosin. If too much flour is used, however, it may make it 
necessary to black the cores. Sometimes it is desirable to have 
the surface of cores hard and firm, and the interior porous ; so 
that they will bear handhng, and provide for a smooth surface 
on the casting, and at the same time permit the gases to escape 
freely. In making such cores, the more open the sand, and the 
less flour or rosin used, the better. To assist in making a firm, 
hard surface, the cores should be sprinkled with beer or mo- 
lasses water. 

The quicker, after being made, a core is put into the oven, 
the better. The air-dried surface of a core is liable to crumble. 
Another point that may be noted is, that, the wetter the sand for 
cores can be worked, the less the flour or rosin required. At 
the same time, if the sand is too wet, small cores will stick to 
the boxes, and large cores are liable to sag or crack. 

In making flour cores where they must be strong, and where 
they cannot be thoroughly vented, it is sometimes a good plan 
to use boiled flour, as a much less quantit}- will suffice. To 
use this, the flour should be put in a kettle with enough water 
to make a thin paste. After boiling, this is mixed with water, 
and the sand wet with it. If all the water the sand requires 
can be boiled with the flour, all the better. 

A man who can sucpessfully make the class of cores shown 
in the engraving, Fig. 43, may safely call himself a core-maker. 

Some port-cores are comparatively easily made, but as a rule 
they are amongst the most difficult to make. To properly rod 
and vent such cores, is often a matter that calls for careful 



104 MAKING AND VENTING C0RE8. 

consideration, and a good knowledge of the laws of cause and 
effect. 

It is not the intention to offer instruction as to how any 
special port-cores shonld be made, but rather to show different 
plans that have been and may be practised under different cir- 
cumstances. "When the drawings of a cylinder come into the 
pattern-shop, the pattern-maker should consult with the moulder 
as to the best way to make the pattern and the core-boxes, to 
the end that it may be safely and expeditiously moulded. 

In the engravings are shown three plans for making port- 
cores. The first one can often be used in making small cylin- 
ders, to the saving of work by the moulder, and increasing the 
probability of good castings. The ports, exhaust and steam- 
chest cores, cannot always be made together, as shown, but 
very often they can be. 

The second plan, in which part of the core is swept up, is 
very handy for the moulder, as well as simple for the pattern- 
maker. It gives the moulder an opportunity to see what he is 
doing, and saves him time and labor. 

The third plan, of having a full box, is one often resorted 
to where the cores are quite crooked and irregular, but should 
seldom be resorted to where the second plan can be emploj-ed. 

In the engravings are shown four plans for rodding cylinder 
cores. The lower right-hand cut represents the making of cast- 
iron rods. This is done by taking half the core-box, and bed- 
ding its face into the sand, which is made solid for the purpose. 
The box is then withdrawn ; and, by using a gate cutter, a 
frame similar to the welded core-iron shown is made. For a 
cope or covering, heavy paper is used, laying it over the face 
of the joint. Sand is then packed on the paper, and boards 
and pig-iron placed to hold the sand down when the frame is 
poured, which is done through the pouring gate, as represented. 
Irons like this are readily made, and are often good for short, 
thick cores. 



MAKING AND VENTING CORES, 105 

On the right are represented wrought-iron rods, ready to have 
cast on them a narrow i)hite of cast-iron. This is for the pur- 
pose of holding the rods in their proper position at the print 
end. Single cross-rods are used, when making the cores, for 
holding the other end together. For getting off the vents, 
holes are drilled or cast in the plate, as shown at 1, 2, 3, and 
4. At X, X, are shown two views of a wooden support, cut 
to the circle required, and having notches for the number of 
rods required. Tiiis is used for holding the rods in proper 
position while the plate is being cast on them. This kind of 
rod is often good for very large, thick cores. Another plan, 




Fig. 44. 

which is often better than the one above described, is as seen 
by Fig. 44. Here, instead of the wrought-iron rods being cast 
in or held by the print end, they are all held by theii" centres ; 
which, besides making them stiff, presents a '' core-iron " easy 
and simple to make. 

The welded core-iron shown is one commonly used. Some- 
times, instead of welding the wrought-iron rods, they are riveted 
together. Frames of either kind make reliable rods for thin 
cores, large or small. The objections to them are, that they 
are costly to make, and that removing them from the casting is 
somewhat troublesome. At D and E are shown two forms that 
are used for fastening wire or bolt hooks to them, to securely 
hold the core in the mould's print. The one at E is made liy 
simply flattening the end, and drilling a hole through it. 



106 MAKING AND VENTING CORES. 

The fifth and last plan represents the use of single rods, 
setting them in the core as it is rammed up. The cut shows 
the proper manner of placing the rods. Were the long rods 
laid so as to have the cross-rods S, seen in section A B, on 
the other side from that represented, when the core was fas- 
tened b}' the hook X), in the print, there would be danger of 
cracking the core. When made as shown, pulling on the hook 
draws the whole core with it. This plan I have employed for 
the port cores of large marine-engine C3'liuders. In one shop, 
where the custom was to weld the rods together, I started to 
make a set of large cores in this way, and was told by the fore- 
man that he had never seen large cores so made, and that he 
did not think the plan a safe one. As I had made larger ones 
in the same way, I argued him into permitting a trial. From 
that time on, there were no more welded rods used ; and the new 
plan saved in the neighborhood of five dollars on every cylinder 
casting. 

Regarding the size of rods to be used for such cores, the 
thickness of the cores and a consideration of getting off the vents, 
etc., must govern each particular case. The larger the rods, 
the stiffer will be the core ; but they should be no larger than 
is necessary, for it is more diflficult to get large rods out of the 
casting than it is small ones. 

If no vents were needed, the making of port cores would be 
much simplified. More, generally, depends upon the vent than 
upon any other feature. The vent-rod and rope shown repre- 
reseut the two plans commonly employed for venting thin, 
crooked cores. By using the rod, a cleaner vent is usually 
insured than by using the rope. The rope is reliable, but 
requires much more care in its use; which not always being 
received, the liability of failure is increased. The use of the 
rodscalls for the most work. When rope is used, nothing more 
is required after the core is dry ; but with rods there are connec- 
tions to be made, as at K, to make the vent continuous. To 



MAKING AND VENTING CORES. 107 

connect the vent, a crevice should be made with a file, as repre- 
sented in dotted lines at A". This crevice is made deep enough 
to admit a string to about the centre of the thickness of the 
core. A string is then passed through either of the holes left 
by the vent-rods, and made to enter the other. The crevice is 
then filled up, the surface smoothed, and the string removed. 
After all the connections have been made, the core is put back 
in the oven to dry the material used for filling the crevice. 

At H, is shown how rods can sometimes be made to connect 
themselves within the body of the core, thereby saving the labor 
just detailed. The holes at the surface, of course, require fill- 
ing ; and when the rods connect near the surface of the core, 
care must be used that the filling of the holes does not close the 
connection. After H and K have been filled, test the vents by 
blowing smoke or dust through, as from A to B. If all the 
vents are clear, then stop up the openings at A. 

In using rope or strings, the arrangements of the vents should 
be well secured ; and care must be used, or in pulling them out 
they will be drawn up to the side of the box. A crooked laid 
rope or string has a tendency to straighten when pulled ; and, 
although the sand may prevent this, there is always a chance 
that it will not do so. Sometimes, to all appearances, the 
operation may have been successfully performed, but in pouring 
the mould the string may have come so near the surface in 
some places that the iron will burst through. At 2, 3, 4, and 
5, are represented the core-rods placed to prevent the string 
from being pulled up against the sides of the box. 

The making and venting of cores is a broad subject, and calls 
for the exercise of much thought and judgment. As in mould- 
ing, he that uses them will meet loith the most success. 



108 SECURING CORE-VENTS. 



SECURING CORE-VENTS. 

In making a mould for any casting, many of the operations 
may be described as those common to the art of moulding ; 
while, in some instances, new operations may be required. A 
good deal of trouble results from neglecting the things that are 
common, for which there is no reasonable excuse. For bad 
results, when new points are involved, there is sometimes 
reason for censuring lightly. The proper securing of core- 
vents is one of the things too often neglected, and one for 
which the core-maker is not infrequently unjustly blamed. To 
show how easily castings maj^ be lost through lack of proper 
attention, I will return to the subject of cylinder cores. 

At /r. Fig. 44a, is represented a core ready to be set in its 
print, while at E it is represented set in place. This is no 
exaggeration, but an example from actual practice. Paste is 
often a very useful substance for assisting in securing vents ; 
but it should be used with discretion, or it may defeat the end 
it was intended to accomplish. Looking at the core K^ it will 
be seen that the core-maker has made a good vent, but that 
the moulder, in setting the core, has stopped up the vent-holes 
with paste, as shown at 2. 

The less paste that can be used, the better, as it is not only 
liable to clog up the vents, but also to blow, or cold-shut, the 
casting. My idea of the way to secure such cores is shown at 
H and F. Before permanently setting the core, it is set in its 
print to see if the side B will form a close joint along its entix'e 
length. Should it be found not to fit prope^-ly, it should be 
made to do so, either by filing or by building up the print with 




Fig. 44a. 



SECURING CORE-VENTS. lOP 

loam or thick blacking. When built up, if the built-up part is 
raore than ^" thick, if the mould is not hot, it should be dried, 
either by using a hot iron, or in the oven. When ready, paste 
may be applied to the side that cannot be readily seen, as B. 
The paste should not be more than ^" thick, as, if the core is 
properly fitted, this is ample. Sometimes it may be advisable 
to put the paste on the mould ; and, again, it may be better to 
put it on both the mould and core. If both mould and core 
are warm, it is better to apply the paste to only one of them ; 
as by dividing it between both it makes a thinner body, and is 
likely to become dried l^efore the core gets set, so as not to 
form a proper joint. Where both mould and core are cold, by 
dividing the paste between them there is not so large a body 
from which the print end of the core will absorb moisture, 
thereby weakening it before it is set in its print. In my prac- 
tice, I always endeavor to have either the mould or core warm, 
to dry the paste, when the core is set. 

A good mixtiu'e for paste is flour wet with black wash, which 
may be either thick or thin, according as thick or thin paste 
is wanted. Clay wash may be used instead of the black wash. 
Both are good to keep the metal from burning away the paste, 
and finding its way into the vents. Where there is danger of 
the paste coming to the surface of the mould, in places where 
it cannot be seen or come at to scrape off, I prefer the black 
wash, as it is not so liable to blow or cold-shut the casting as 
the clay wash. 

For setting cold cores in green-sand moulds, I prefer to wet 
the flour with machinery oil, as there is not so much danger of 
chilling or generating steam as there is when the clay wash or 
black wash is used. Rye flour is the best for paste, as it is not 
so sticky or clammy as wheat-flour paste. As regards the 
thickness or consistency of the paste, it depends somewhat 
upon circumstances ; but, as a rule, it should be so thick that 
it will not flow. 



110 SECURING CORE-VENTS. 

Another important point in making and using paste is clean- 
liness. It is a common thing to see a moulder using paste 
mixed in a dirty pot, and containing foreign matter such as 
dirt, stones, etc., and hard dried paste from the sides of the 
pot. In mixing paste, the flour should be finely sifted, and 
the pot be clean and free from dried paste ; also, necessary 
care should be used to provide against the introduction of any 
foreign matter whatever. 

At H is represented the core F, permanently set in its print. 
At F a space is left open, which it is often advisable to do at 
the ends of the cores. The width of this space should not be 
less than yV', ^^ more than ^" . In horizontally moulded 
cylinders, with valve face, it is generall}- objectionable to make 
the print ends of the pattern the same size as the print ends 
of the cores, as at E. In some instances, it is not practicable 
to leave a space, as shown at F, as there is no chance to get 
at the prints when the cores are set in. In such cases the 
liattern prints should be about \" larger than the print end of 
the core-box ; and when setting in the cores, use just sufficient 
paste to make a reliable joint. I prefer, in such instances, to 
use the paste Qnly on the core, as at /i", as there is not the same 
danger of the paste being forced into the vents as when it is 
also applied to the mould, as at 4. There is, of course, a pos- 
sibility of the paste being squeezed to the surface of the mould, 
as shown at E, by placing the paste on the core's points, as 
shown ; but if care is used, the amount will be very small, 
if any. 

Setting cores in the way just indicated requires the exercise 
of skill and judgment, and the plan should be avoided when 
that shown at V can be employed. By the latter plan, there is 
an opportuuit}' to see what is being done, and certainty is made 
to take the place of chance-work. 

When the core is being set in the prnit for the last time, it 
should be kept over to the side F, that the paste, shown at B, 



8ECUPJNG CORE-VENTS. Ill 

will not be scraped up, as at E^ or squeezed down into the vent 
outlets at 2. When the core is down, it is then pressed tightly 
against the side S. The space V should then be rammed up 
with new moulding-sand, wet with beer ; or, if the mould or core 
is warm enough to dry it, loam or blacking daub may be used, 
as it will bake so as to hold the core more firmly. The advan- 
tage of the beer-sand is that no time is lost in waiting for it 
to be dried in a cold mould. 

To mix the beer-sand, take new, dry moulding-sand, and 
wet it with the beer, so it will be as damp as sand for making 
green-sand moulds. The reason for using the moulding-sand 
dry is that it may absorb sufficient beer to give it strength. 
When blacking daubing is used, it is made by mixing blacking- 
dust (same as used for making blacking or for dusting green- 
saud moulds) with an equal quantity of parting-sand. When 
thoroughly mixed, the mixture is wet with medium thick claj' 
wash. The clay wash gives body, and the parting-sand makes 
it open. 

This is a good mixture, not only for the purpose named, but 
also for patching up moulds and the joints of cores. I have 
used it for daubing up the joints of column cores cold, setting 
the cores in the moulds without drying. Whatever dampness 
may have remained was provided for by the porous character 
given it by the parting-sand. When used for patching the 
surfaces or corners of moulds, it is better for being dried and 
blacked over, as this insures a smooth surface on the casting, 
which might otherwise be rough or scabbed. 

To hold the small body of sand between the core prints, 
some use nails or rods, as represented at D. This is a poot 
plan. At W is shown a much better one, as it not only holds 
the sand firmly, but gives a solid print that will not be broken 
in setting in or removing the core. It also helps to hold the 
cores in place. The plates (at W) are of iron, about y thick, 
and long enough to project about 2" beyond the ends of the 



112 SECURING CORE-VENTS. 

print. Their depth is about twice that of the print. The face 
edge of the plates can be kept ^" away from the pattern. 
They are generally placed upon a little sand sifted on it, the 
plates being wet with clay wash to make the sand stick. 

In the large engraving of the section of a belted cylinder 
mould, two plans of securing cores are shown. At T is repre- 
sented the plan I prefer. Numerals 2, 3, and 6 show openings 
made in the flask opposite the exhaust and port-core prints. 
When the cores are all set, and the outside joints doubled up, 
the open space T is rammed up with sand. After the sand is 
rammed up to the first row of vent-holes, they are cleaned out, 
and short vent-rods put in them ; then more sand is rammed, 
and the second row of vent-rods placed, and so on till the joint 
is reached. (These rods can all be placed before commencing 
to ram up if we avoid hitting them.) When the cope is on, 
the vent-rods are placed, and the sand is rammed through the 
opening provided at N. 

Sometimes circumstances will not admit of the vents being 
taken off through the cope. In such cases it is often advisable 
to connect the upper portion of the core-vents with the lower, 
as represented in the top and bottom parts of the belt-core. 
(The bottom half of the belt-core is shown all black, so as 
to prominently show the line of vents.) Where the cores are 
not made in halves, this is somewhat difficult to accomplish ; 
but by referring to the article "Making and Venting Cores" 
(p. 106), the plan of connecting and venting such cores will be 
understood. 

At P is shown a plan for taking off vents, which we may be 
obliged to use when the flask is not adapted to the job, or when 
the pattern is not properly made. 

Whenever the joint of a mould must be raised above the 
joint of the flask, as shown at i?, the more room there is to 
mount a strong body of sand, the more likely it is to keep its 
form and to support the cores, etc. This plan of moulding is 



SECURING CORE-VENTS. 



113 



not always objectionable ; but unless there is room sufficient for 
the vents to be cared for within the body of the mould itself, 
and then all led off through one opening, there should be open- 
ings in the flask, as shown at F, 2, 3, and 6. 

Taking off vents through the joint of a dry-sand flask, as 
shown at P, is by no means reliable. It would be much better 
to drill holes through the sides of the flask for the purpose. 

When the face of a cylinder is moulded as here shown , it i? 
often advisable to have the cores form their own prints, similar 
to 7, 8, and 9. This plan saves work in rodding, and labor 
in setting and securing the cores. 

The exhaust core-box shown is a handy one for cores made 
in halves. XX show the sweep being used for striking out 
the circle portion. 



GREEN SAND MOULDING. 



CASTING FINISHED WORK HORIZONTALLY. 

In a previous article is described the casting of a hydraulic 
hoist in dry sand. In this the manner of making a longer one 
in green sand will be described. It may be asked, why, if a 
casting about twenty-three feet long could be made in green 
sand, one about fourteen and a half feet long could not be 
made in the same way. It would be unreasonable to expect 
that such castings will be as perfect cast horizontally in green 
sand as if they were cast vertically in dry sand. The longest 
one would have been cast vertically, had there been a foundry 
near by that had the facilities for doing it. The casting had to 
be made ; and, as no one would cast it vertically, some one 
must do it horizontally. The Cuyahoga Works was selected to 
do the job. The castings, when finished up, presented a very 
creditable appearance for green-sand work. 

The upper cut shows the dimensions of the casting, the dotted 
lines representing stock allowed for holding dirt and for finish- 
ing. The length of casting as taken out of the foundry was 
twenty-four feet two inches ; eighteen inches of which, as shown 
at the gate end, was added as stock for holding dirt, and was 
cut off in finishing. The thin rib (31) was cast on as a dirt riser, 
and was also cut off. No. 30 was a flange used to assist in the 
moulding ; and, as it was a good thing to attach the pouring 
gate to, it was left and cast as shown. The reason for pouring 
the casting entirely from the end that was not to be finished 
was that such gated castings will he the dirtiest at the gate end; 
in fact, such gates, as a general thing, do not distribute dirt 
only in the section to which they are attached. If one were to 
114 



CASTING FINISHED WORK HORIZONTALLY. 



llo 




116 



CASTING FINISHED WORK HORIZONTALLY. 



cast an open sand block having such an under gate, he would 
most likely see nearly all the dirt collected in a body directly 
over the gate. The action of the liquid metal forms a whirl- 
pool, as it were over the gate, thereby preventing the dirt from 
flowing away with the metal. As a general tiling, the portions 
farthest from gates ivill be the cleanest parts of a casting. Their 
cleanliness will depend much upon the style of gate used, etc. 

To further discuss the important question of properly gating 
moulds, the small cut, Fig. 46, is given. At E is shown an 
under gate, similar to the one in the large engraving. The arrow 
represents the flow of metal. The core shown has prevented 
portions of the dirt from rising to the top of the cope. At H 
iS shown a style of gating that will not confine the dirt to the 



Skimming Core.^ 




Fig. 46. 



gate portion of the casting ; and, in fact, to correctly foretell 
where the greater portion of the dirt will be collected, is often a 
difficult task. Such gates are distributors of dirt, while such as 
the one at E confine it. This is a point that must be consid- 
ered in the gating of moulds, as it has much to do with pro- 
viding that the gated end of a casting shall catch and hold the 
gate's dirt. The gated end of such castings should contain 
about all of the gate's impurities. But I think the interested 
reader will plainly see that this will depend greatly upon the 
st3de of gate used. 

Another point that may be here noticed is the destructive 
qualities of the two styles of gates shown. Under gates, as at 



CASTING FINISHED WORK HORIZONTALLY. 111 

£", are, as a general thing, the easiest upon a mould ; as the 
metal in flowing is not allowed to run over the mould's surface, 
as it would from gate //. Surface scabbing w mould cutting 
is very liable to occur with the last-named gate, because of the 
friction of metal upon the mould. Under gates, as at E, fill 
up a mould with very little surface friction, and are often the 
best to adopt. 

When under or side gates are used, so as to be independent 
if a cope, thus not allowing skimming-gates in the cope, should 
they be desired, the basin with the skimming-core upon the 
principle set forth in the chapter " Defects in Structural 
Casting," is advantageous, as it prevents the skimmings from 
passing into the mould. In fact, for all dean work, lohere it is 
practicable to do it, combining such skimming-basins with direct 
runners will always he a great assistance. 

As there was only one of these castings to make, the com- 
pany did not wish to go to expense of a complete pattern, so 
the skeleton frame shown was used. In making the mould, the 
frame was bedded in level and true ; and after being rammed 
ii[), and the joint made, the cope form of pattern was made by 
setting on circular pieces, as shown at 33, 32, 34, 35, 36, and 37 
(Fig. 45). Between these, sand was firmly rammed ; the whole 
being struck off with sweeps, as seen at F. Paper being put 
over the sand to form a joint, the cope was put on and rammed 
up. After being lifted off, the false sand pattern was then 
shovelled away, and the nowel part of the mould formed by 
strikes or sweeps, E and D. After the sweeping, the long 
sides of the frame, 38 and 39, were unscrewed and drawn off. 
The open space thereby left was then filled up with sand ; the 
circle of the mould being followed up by using a piece about 
two feet long, of the circle of mould, as at Y. This made the 
mould's circle complete up to the joint. The sweep guides, 
40, 41, 42, and 43, were then drawn, and their space filled up, 
after which the mould was finished. The metal around the 



118 CASTING FINISHED WORK HORIZONTALLY. 

core was one-half inch thicker in the cope than in the nowel^ 
the half inch lacing for a riser or space for holding the dirt. 
The extra stock was turned off in finishing the casting. This 
extra thickness was allowed for in the making of the circular 
cope guides, as represented by 32, the outside line being ellip- 
tical, while the dotted line represents a true circle of the required 
finished size. 

Another point of some interest is that of coring long moulds, 
where, through lack of oven or shop facilities, the centre core 
must be made in three separate lengths. The difficult}' attend- 
ing the splicing of such cores is in getting off the middle core 
vent. The most reliable way I know of, to carry off such core 
vents, is the one shown. When making the cores, vent rods, 
44 and 45, are rammed up in about the centre of each half. 
Then, when pasting the cores together, a connection, 46, 47, 
48, and 49, is made. (With this job, 48 is not really necessary, 
as the upper vent is sufficient to take care of what is required 
to be carried of¥.) Where the connections are, there must be a 
reliable close joint ; for, if any metal should get in, you might 
expect a " blow-up." In making the vents in the centre of the 
halves, as shown, instead of at the joint, as is generally done, 
there is less risk ; for, if iron does find its way to the joint, it 
can do no harm, the parts where the connections are, of course, 
being excepted. 

When the cores are butted together in the mould, two pieces 
of f" gas tubes, T and K, are placed, the cavity for their in- 
sertion being cut out in making the cores. An end view of the 
cavity and tube is shown at section through S^ K. After the 
tube is inserted about one inch in each vent hole, the rest of 
the cavity is carefully filled up -with new moulding-sand, which, 
if wet with beer, is all the better, as it will air-dry more solid 
than if the sand is dampened with water. The tubes are better 
for having a few \" holes drilled in them, as this will allow any 
gas in the green sand used to escape. Before smoothing off 



CASTING FINISHED WORK HORIZONTALLY. 11;> 

the greeu sand, it is well to vent down to tlie tubes with a fine 
wire ; the holes at the surface being well closed, the green 
sand is then oiled over. The balance of the work is treated as 
is commonly done. The cut of pattern, skeleton and mould, 
is shown wider than its proportion to length. This is done to 
give a better chance for figures, etc. The cut of the casting is 
proportionately shown. 



320* HEAVY AND LIGHT WORK SKIMMING-GATES. 



HEAVY AND LIGHT WORK SKIMMING-GATES. 

As a supplement to the previous chapter, " Casting Finished 
Work Horizontally," the following will be found an interesting 
and valuable addition, in which Figs. 47, 48, and 50 are plans for 
skim-gating heavy work. When one has from ten up to thirty 
tons of iron to pour into a mould, conditions in gating will 
seldom permit the use of such skimming-gates as are generally 
used for ordinary work. In pouring ten tons or more of iron 
through a gate into a mould, there can be no dribbling process 
allowed. The iron generally requires to be got into the mould 
as quickly as practicable. 

Figs. 47 and 49 represent plans of gates which I have used on 
heavy work with much success. While they act as skimmers, 
there is nothing to prevent their letting in the iron about as fast 
as if there were one direct gate from the basin to the mould- 
entrance. In Fig. 47 the metal runs down yl, passing through 
B to D. From Z> it goes through E to the mould. Fig. 48 is a 
plan-view of this gate. It will be seen that the gate B is so 
placed that it sends the metal into D upon a whirl. The inlet- 
gate E, being higher than 5, as shown, admits of a good whirl 
being generated before the metal rises up to E. The inlet-gate 
E, if desirable, could be on a level with or below B. The best 
(Vhirl is created by B being below E ; as, when upon a level 
with jE, its opening destroys part of the circle, thereby not 
permitting of as good a whirl being created as if the circle in 
front of B were complete as shown. 

In Fig. 49 the metal passes down // to K^ and from K to F. 
K and F are simply one straight gate ; tha portion between U 



HEAVY AND LIGHT WORK SKIMMING-GATES. 



121 



and R being as deep agaiu as at F, where it runs into the mould, 
/i being deeper than F, and having the riser i? at its end, gives 
a chance for the dirt to be kept up above F; thereby allowing. 



Basin 





M 








" 




^,^-^» ' .. 


^— 9"— > 






.••■'•••!■*:•••.■■ 




::•. ■:■■•;•"■■••'•: 


'.'■'■' 


•;:5^ 


^ 1 




riV-V 



Fig. 49. 



F 




Fig. 47. 
Heavy fFork Skimming Gates, 

after the start, clean iron to enter the mould. The farther 
apart the uprights // and R are, the deep part JT, of course, 
being extended also, the better the chances to catch and hold 



122 HEAVY AND LIGHT WORK SKIMMING-GATES. 

the dirt. This plan is not recommended as being as good as 
Fig. 47 ; for it has no whirl, and some dirt may be admitted into 
the mould, especially upon the start. 

The gate sizes given are only to present some idea as to their 
relative proportion ; for instance, D being 1" diameter, will 
admit of the 3^' diameter gate A^ creating a good whirl, and 
also gives D plenty of room to hold dirt. For practical work- 
ing the moulder will, of course, have to use his judgment as to 
the size of the gates in applying them to the conditions to be 
dealt with. While these gates may be used inside of the flasks, 
they are more particularly to be used outside ; which, for heavy 
work, is generally the best plan, when practicable, to adopt. 
Moulders who are accustomed to light work only, are, if given 
heavy work, likely to adopt the methods to which they are 
accustomed ; that is, they think the same kind of a skimming- 
gate will answer all purposes. These often fail, because they 
will not take the metal fast enough. 

In heavy work the metal is generally poured duller than in 
light work ; and when we consider the amount that is run 
through the gates in not much more time than is taken up in 
pouring far lighter work, we must admit, that, in attempting to 
pour from ten up to and over thirty tons of iron through a form 
that would insure a light casting coming clean, some evils will 
be likely to result. 

In light work there is a positiveness which it seems almost 
impracticable to obtain in heavy work. Skimming-gates, if 
properly applied to light work, will assist astonishingly in pro- 
curing perfect and clean castings. One reason why heavy cast- 
ings are not generally benefited by skimming-gates is, that the 
moulds present such a large surface from which dust and dirt 
can be collected. One thing that should always be remembered 
is, that a skimming-gate only helps while the metal is passing 
into the mould, and that it has not the properties of a porous 
plaster for drawing out impurities (generated in the mould), 
which man}' seem to think it has. 



HEAVY AND LIGHT WORK SKIMMING-GATES. 



128 



Having, in several different parts of this work, referred to 
various styles of skimming-gates, I will now notice a few other 
forms adapted for light work. Fig. 50 is an elevation and plan- 




Fig. 50. 



,^:;l 



IT 1*^ o l"-'' 



Mould 



9 10 






ToT 



Fig. 52. 



t^ 




view of pouring with horn-gates attached to a skimming-gate H. 
This bowl H is formed cone-shaped upon its bottom, so as to 
give impulse to the whirl upon the start. If, at the start, a 



124 HEAVY AND LIGHT WORK SKIMMING-GATES. 

good whirl is formed, it will drive and hold the dirt in the centre 
of H^ thereby preventing it from entering the outlets which 
connect with the horn-gates. The reason for using the horn- 
gates is, that by their use there is not such a direct current 
caused as would be were the gate level from H to the mould, 
which can, of course, be used with this skim-gate if it is so 
desired. The less current-influences side-gates exert from H, 
the more whirl there will be, which is the main success of such 
a style of skimming-gate. 

A^ N, and G illustrate the pouring of several pieces from 
one horn- or branch-gate, while T shows onl}' one piece being 
poured. The bowl H is best formed by having a pattern 
rammed up when making the mould. There might be several 
sizes of such patterns, so that one could use the size best 
adapted for the piece or pieces to be cast. 

Did one wish to further increase the utility of the skimming- 
gate, the whole thing could be formed by pattern, as per sketch 
Fig. 51. The holes seen at each end are simply for the purpose 
of holding and guiding the upright gate-pins, P and it, while 
ramming up the cope. Several different sizes of these patterns 
could be made, either of wood or iron. If of iron, they could 
be cored out so as to make them light ; and not only could they 
be used for forming the skimming-gate in the nowel, but in 
copes as well. The branch lines at B show where the outlet 
from H should be cut. These outlets could, did one desire, be 
made as part of the pattern. As there shown, the whirl will 
be better preserved. While in Fig. 50 two outlets are shown, 
cut from H, it is not advisable to do so if it can possibly be 
avoided ; for the reason that the whirl in H will be greatly 
lessened thereby. With reference to the proper proportion of 
such gates, ideas are given (on p. 101, vol. i., and on p. 17 
of this book) with which most readers are no doubt familiar. 
Any shop that has a line of small work which requires to be 
finished up should in some form or other have skimming-gate 



HEAVY AND LIGHT WORK SKIMMING-GATES. 



125 



patterns, not only for the purpose of saving labor in cutting 
the gates ; but, as ever}' practical foundryman knows, to leave 
the cutting of skimming-gates to the judgment of most mould- 
ers produces a gate which is far from being a cleaner or puri- 
fier of metal before it enters the mould. 

The author's attention was lately called to a good thing in 
the line of a light-work skimming-gate, patented by Richard 
Cross of Cleveland, O. The principles of the gate embody 
several good features worthy of notice and study. The gate as 
seen shows a side and a plan view of 
the pattern. They are made of differ- 
ent sizes, ranging from one suited for 
pouring a five- pound casting up to 
one for a casting weighing a thousand 
pounds. For heavier work two or 
three gates could be attached to a 
mould if desirable. The gate pattern 
is made of cast-iron, the inside being 
cored out so as to make them light for 
ease of handling. In using the gate, 
set it upon the mould-board in such 
proximity to the pattern as may be desirable. There are right- 
aud left-hand gates, so as to still increase their utility. In 
ramming up the cope, the pouring-runner gate is set at the 
end of B. The cope being lifted off, and the pattern and skim- 
ming-gate drawn, a connection from ^to the mould is cut ; the 
cutting of which, and the setting of the skimming-core, are all 
the moulder is required to do to give himself a good skimming- 
gate. 

When pouring the mould, the flow of the metal is illustrated 
by the arrows shown. The metal going in at B causes a whirl 
which prevents, in a great measure, at the start, any dirt from 
Xxissing under the sMmming-core, and thence up into the mould. 
This is something our ordinarily used skimming-gates accom- 




R. CROSS. 
PATENT GATE 
Fig. 53. 



126 HEAVY AND LIGHT WORK SKIMMING-GATES. 

plish but feebly. In them all, the first flow of iron generally 
carries more or less dirt with it into the mould. The idea 
which Mr. Cross has embodied in his skimming-gate is indeed 
worth noticing. 

At Fig. 52 are set forth some more ideas in gating that are 
useful. The mould shown we will suppose to be a flat plate 
required to be finished all over. There are two ladles to be 
used in pouring the mould. The end of the runner nearest the 
pouring-gate is formed by a skimming-gate cut in the cope. At 
Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, are seen what are generally termed 
" blind risers." These are formed in the cope, as will be seen 
by the joint-line F S. The lower part of this long runner from 
which the inlet gates 7, 8, 9, and 10 are cut, is made in the 
newel, and is made the deepest at the skimming-gate end, so as 
to insure its being kept full at the end which admits the metal 
into the mould. The gates 7, 8, 9, and 10 are supposed to 
be cut thin, and of an area sufficiently small to insure their 
taking the metal no faster than the long runner, and gates P 
and D, will admit of, keeping them full while pouring. This 
long runner might often have the blind risers, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 
6, omitted. Of course, by their use (if the gates P R are kept 
full) there is ver}^ little chance for any dirt that might escape 
from D ov R finding its way into the mould. In cases where 
there are many castings to make, did one desire to use such a 
runner having " blind risers," there often might be a pattern 
made and rammed up with the mould. Also upon the top of 
these "blind risers" it might, in some cases, be beneficial to 
occasionally place risers which would extend up through the 
cope, as seen at 4, though as a general thing such would be of 
little practical value. In some cases the air passing up through 
risers (were it safe to leave them open) may make sufficient air- 
current to carry or float some dirt to the riser ; but, as a general 
thing, the dirt is more liable to stay between or alongside of 
a riser, should it be caught there through the upward rising 
of the metal. 



HEAVY AND LIGHT WORK SKIMMING-GATES. 127 

There are, no doubt, manjr who cannot see the reason why 
the gates 7, 8, 9, and 10 could not have been cut nearer to 
the skimming-gate DRP, thereby saving the necessity of cut- 
ting such a long runner as shown. The reason for cutting such 
a long runner is simply founded upon the fact, that, the longer 
the distance throxicjh ivhich iron is made to travel before it can 
enter the mould, the better the chances for catching and prevent- 
ing the dirt from getting into the moidd. This long-gate or 
runner principle applies towards cleanliness, the same as gating 
a casting, as far as practical, from the parts required to be 
finished; which is set forth in the previous chapter, "Casting 
Finished Work Plorizon tally." 

Often, in small work, when a number of small pieces are 
made in the same flask, should some of them require to be fin- 
ished they could have no better skimming-gates than to let the 
metal run through the other pieces into them, thus gating from 
one piece to another ; the piece which receives the first iron 
from the pouring-gate will naturally contain the most dirt. 

In pouring an}' casting requiring to be finished, the hotter 
the metal can practically be poured, the cleaner should be the 
casting. Pieces gated or run from others especially require to 
be poured with very fluid iron, not only for procuring cleanli- 
ness but to insure a good full-run casting. 

In the first volume, reference is made in several places to 
the dirt accumulated in ladles, and pouring-basins or runners, 
and commonly called "impurities." Treating this subject 
scientificall}', the impurities so rapidh' gathered upon the sur- 
face of skimmed ladles are chiejly due to the affinity iron has 
for the oxygen in the air. When a ladle is skimmed clean, it is 
not long before a scum is seen to gather upon the surface of 
the metal. This scum which occurs from the oxidation of the 
surface of the metal will, as long as the metal's surface is 
exposed to the atmosphere, whether in the ladle or on its 
passage to the inlet-gates, be created. This impurity, coupling 



128 HEAVY AND LIGHT WORK SKIMMING-GATES. 

with the dust and washed sand, of pouring-hasins or runners, 
is the reason why we are often surprised at the amount of dirt 
created in pouring moulds with fresh, clean, skimmed ladles. 
The function of the skimming-gate is to catch and prevent this 
dirt from passing into the mould. Of course, good skimming- 
gates will not counteract the evils of mould-scabbing, etc. ; but 
with intelligence used in gating, in concert with a well-made 
mould, surprisingly clean castings can be made. 




Sectional Victc of Face Plate, 
Figurcs^Fitiish Size. 



fi^-\ — -16--— f3'4- -'2^- 42'^ <S 







y.:::'.Ofic>oo o ff-.y. -. 






''■'3a aoaafiotpa c/aaooo C(3ci/> ''ii^'y '*'.•'■ '.• 



mmm: ::::.:■■:• 



Fig. 54. 



TOP-POURING GATES. ' 129 



TOP-POURING GATES, AND SWEEPING A 
LATHE FACE-PLATE. 

A THOROUGH knowledge of the practical working, so far as 
results are concerned, of the different styles of gates commonly 
used, will always be a valuable acquisition to the knowledge 
required to insure clean castings. In previous articles, I have 
shown the action and adaptation of various forms of gates ; in 
this article, I will try to present a few ideas concerning the so- 
called top-pouring gates. As a general thing, the merits of 
this gate as a valuable skimmer in pouring moulds are lost sight 
of through its use being more a matter of necessity in gating. 
Many moulders use it simply for its convenience, and not from 
any knowledge or intention of its usefulness in making a clean 
casting. 

As a general thing, top-pouring gates act as a positive skim- 
mer ; for the reason that there is nothing to prevent the flow of 
dirt to the top of the basins, and the iron that passes into the 
mould being free from impurities or sulliage ; that is, if the 
gate ^s properlv noade. What I mean by positive is, that 
the principle is positive ; and, if the action is not so, the fault 
lies with the one tvho makes the gate. I have seen some very 
grave errors committed by men who should have known better ; 
that is, if thirty to forty years' experience are worth any thing. 

To show up some of the errors made in the construction of 
basins and top-pouring gates, the engravings (Fig. 54) illustrate 
a ' ' Right ' ' and a ' ' Wrong ' ' form . The basin marked ' ' Right ' ' 
represents the clean iron dropping into the mould, as seen at 
F. Upon the top of the basin iron, is shown the dirt. Thia 



130 TOP-POURING GATES. 

condition will exist if every thing is made as it should be ,• but 
it is astonishing to note how small a matter will destroy the 
positive action of the gate. 

I will first try to show some of the errors made in this respect. 
The first one is in the bottom of a long basin, which, instead 
of having an incline from the pouring-end down to the gate, 
as seen from P to T, is made to incline exactly the reverse, as 
from i? to y in basin marked "Wrong." This causes the 
iron to run up-hill, which for long basins is often detrimental 
to keeping the gates full. 

If basins are short, as seen at W in the small basin, then 
1 would advise that they be made highest at the entrance of 
the gates; for, if they were the lowest there, " cutting of the 
basin" might be caused before the gate could be filled. And, 
from the fact of their being short, the gate should be easily 
kept full, which, if accomplished, avoids an}^ use for an incline. 

Some differ with me in respect to my making long basins 
inclining from the basin down to the gates. They claim the 
incline should be upwards, as seen in the long basin upon the 
left, in order to keep the dirt out of the gates at the start. So 
far as this point is concerned, the author would say, he advo- 
cates the incline in long basins as an aid in keeping the gates 
full, a thing most paramount in making a clean delivering 
basin. Whether a long basin-runner inclines up or down, will 
not prevent more or less dirt from entering the gates upon 
the start. About the only way to aid cleanliness in this 
respect is, to have the basin with a skimming-core, upon the 
principle shown in vol. i. p. 93, also p. 17 of current vol- 
ume. The time necessary to make a skimming-core runner- 
basin is seldom available. Therefore we must utilize as best 
we can our hurried basin-making ; and in such a case the 
points to be attained is, to make the basin so that you can keep 
the gates full from the beginning, and, at the start, have no 
"cutting of basins:" once accomplish thie, and I care not 



TOP-POURING GATES. 131 

whether j^our runner is inclining up or down. My reason for 
showing the basin inclining is, simply, because I believe that 
in the long-run, by this, the best results will be obtained : an 
extremely steep incline is not advocated. In the basin shown, 
we have but 1" of a fall : all that is required is an incline suffi- 
cient to insure an easy fall. In some cases, the long part of 
the basin could have its runner-end T made level, the incline 
being only from the basin down to about one-half the runner's 
length. While this would, in some cases, be sufficient to insure 
a good flow, the level part, being near the end of the gates, 
would present a bottom upon which dirt might lodge, as the 
runner was emptying itself of its last iron, thus assisting in 
preventing any dirt that might be inclined to pass down the 
gates, because of an incline causing a flow towards them. 

If a basin the dimensions of the one marked "Wrong" were 
used in the place of the one marked " Right," in pouring such 
a casting as is shown, the result would be that the gates H, B, 
and S could not be kept properly full, and the dirt that should 
be kept upon the top of the basin-iron would nearl}' all pass 
into the mould. 

Still another error in making long basins is not having the 
runner or basin-box level. I have often seen bad results from 
this bhmder. I remember a case where the moulder, when 
pouring his mould, could get but little iron to run down the 
gates. The cause of this was having the bottom of the runner 
inclined, as seen at yand R, and also the basin end M, down 
very nearly level with the gates. Such an error as this could 
easily occur if the moulder were careless, or did not think. 

Another error, that is very commonly committed in making 
small as well as large basins or runners, is seen upon the right 
in the four cuts showing the side and plan views of short 
basins. In the upper cut, the basin is shown made larger 
around the gate than in the lower one. In pouring moulds 
with top gates, the action of the iron, upon running into the 



132 TOP-POURING GATES. 

mould, is to suck down any dirt tliat may be directly over or 
near to the gates. The more room around gates in a basin, the 
better are the chances for all the dirt to remain upon the top 
of the iron. In the large basins, at S and H, this point is also 
shown. In the cut marked "Right," the runner or basin is 
seen to extend beyond the gates. Iron poured into basins 
flows towards the gates and beyond them, if there is room 
allowed for its doing so. The flow carries with it the dirt ; so 
that, if a basin or runner is made to extend beyond the gates, 
the dirt (or impurities) is also, in a large measure, carried 
beyond the gates, thus aiding in preventing the dirt from pass- 
ing into the mould. I don't care what shop that uses top- 
gates msij be visited, one will be very apt to see some of th.e 
above errors daily committed. To make top-gates positive 
purifiers, or skimmers, is an easy matter, if a little common- 
sense is used. 

To show the results of proper top-pouring, the sweeping and 
pouring of a nine-foot lathe face-plate are illustrated. The sec- 
tional view of face-plate is that of a casting made and used in 
the Cuyahoga Works. The dotted line over the face represents 
^" thickness that was turned off in finishing. The casting was 
made by the use of the sweep and rib skeleton-frame shown ; 
and to the moulder who made the job, much credit is due, for 
any one in looking at the casting would hardly imagine that it 
was cast face up, it was so clean. 

In sweeping this mould, the spindle-seat being set, a good 
cinder-bed was put in ; after which, the hole being filled u\) 
level with the floor, a plain sweep (not shown) was then 
attached to the spindle arms (which also are not shown), and 
a plain hard bed was swept up. The sweep being then removed, 
the bed was sleeked and sprinkled with parting-sand, and the 
cope rammed up. ' The cope being hoisted off, the sweep, as 
shown, was then attached, and the bottom swept out. 

It might be well to state, that before the plain or cope sweep 



TOP-rOURTNG GATES. 133 

was attached, the bottom sweep was attached, and a rough form 
of the mould's bottom made about two inches lower than the 
intended bottom surface. This space was then filled with 
facing-sand up to the level of the joint ; so that in sweeping 
out the mould, after the cope was hoisted off, the bottom would 
be all formed in facing-sand. The facing-sand, being taken 
out of the bottom, could be used for other work. 

After the sweeping was finished, the rib-skeleton frame was 
bedded-in, and eight arms formed. The sectional plan view of 
face-plate shows the number and sizes of cores set between 
each of the arms. The cores were made just the thickness 
of the mould, and were set upon the surface without the use of 
prints, as seen at E in the mould. It was, of course, seen that 
they all touched the cope in a firm manner, in order to prevent 
their moving when the mould was poured. 

By this plan, far larger face-plates than the one shown could 
be made without a pattern ; and not only castings of this form, 
but many other classes of castings, can be made to have their 
cope face clean by an intelligent use of top-pouring gates. 



134 THE MOULD-BOARD AND FLASK-HINGE. 



SMALL CASTINGS. — THE MOULD-BOARD AND 
FLASK-HINGE. 

For turning out small castings fast and neat, there is ncthing 
more essential than having mould-boards that will save hand 
joint-making. There are used as common property four kinds 
of boards ; the first being the wooden, the second the sand, the 
third the plaster-Paris, and the fourth the match board or plate. 
Making these is with some shops a common affair, while with 
others it is the reverse. There are many moulders, who, were 
they told to make a match plate, or plaster-of -Paris board, 
could not do so without instruction. 

At the left, in cut. Fig. 55, is illustrated the making of plaster 
board. At the right is a section of the board as completed. In 
making this board, the pattern is rammed up, and the joint made 
the same as if a cope were to be rammed upon it. Instead of 
the cope, a sectional view of a wooden frame is seen, the inside 
of which is even with the inside of the nowel. The joint should 
be made tight, so as to prevent leakage. The plaster is poured 
in through holes. A", K ; and when set, or hard, the board is 
lifted off, and the sand washed off the face of the plaster with 
water and a brush. After the face is diy, it is given a coat of 
lamp-black shellac varnish ; and, when it is dry, the board is ready 
for use. In making plaster boards, there are a few details which 
it may be well to notice. Plaster-of-Paris is made by boiling 
or burning gypsum, a mineral consisting essentially of sul- 
phate of lime and water, the proportions being : lime, 32.56 ; 
sulphuric acid, 46.51 ; water, 20.93. Gypsum deprived of its 
water by burning leaves a ix)wder, that, when mixed with its 



Cope 




Coiistritctiny I'laster Hoard 



J:'Cu-:,cr Hoard Completed 



Fig. 55. 



THE MOULD-BOARD AND FLASK-HINGE. 135 

own bulk of water, formes a creamy paste which almost im- 
mediately becomes solid. In using plaster-of-Faris, the liquidity 
of the mixture should be regulated by the thickness of body 
required. For thin bodies, two parts of water to one of plaster 
may be satisfactory ; but for general work one of plaster to 
one of water will be nearly right. 

In preparing to pour a plaster mould, the outside of joints 
should be either carefully stopped up with clay, or firmly banked 
up with sand, to prevent leakage. If nothing but the water 
comes out, it is, of course, all right ; for much of that is 
disposed of, and if it does not leak through the joints it is ab- 
sorbed by the sand in the flask. The holes for pouring in the 
plaster should be as large as practicable ; for, the quicker a 
mould is filled, the better for filling thin places or corners. If 
a mould has any body at all, it will shrink so as to require 
being filled up after it is poured. Before starting to pour a 
mould, one should have plenty of water and plaster ; for it does 
not work very well to have to run away from the job to pro- 
cure either after a mould has been poured. With practice one 
can guess very nearly the amount of mixture required to fill a 
mould ; and it should, especiall}' for light-body moulds, be all 
mixed before starting to pour. For thick bodies we may par- 
tially fill a mould, and then complete the job by a second 
pouring ; but for general work plaster-of-Paris requires prompt 
and active work. 

The patterns used should be oiled, in order to prevent the 
plaster from sticking to them. In forming the joints, special 
care should be taken to insure that the mould-board will form 
a joint that will not only lift clean, but one that will leave a 
finless and true jointed casting. 

At H , H, H, are seen nails driven in for the purpose of 
assisting in holding the plaster in place. In, some cases, nails 
are driven all over the bottom boards, as well as at the sides 
of the frame. Again, some will, where there are heavy bodies of 



136 THE MOULD-BOARD AND FLASK-HINGE. 

plaster to hold, put in bars nailed to the frame, or secure to it 
strips or blocks driven full of nails. 

Plaster boards are ordinarily used only where, from the 
crookedness of the pattern, other boards cannot be as cheaply 
made, as perfectly fitted, or kept as true when being used. 
Wooden boards, when for irregular joints and finely fitted, are 
preferred by moulders ; as they are generally light, will retain 
good edges, and can be moved with little risk of being broken. 

For irregular shaped patterns, there is probably at the present 
time none more popular than what is called the " sand board." 
The common way of making sand boards is simply to ram up 
the now el hard and solid, and then, after making a good firm 
joint, ram up a false cope or frame. The kind of sand used 
for the boards has much to do with their life. Some take all 
new moulding-sand, mixed witli about one to ten of flour ; 
others will use no flour, but will wet their sand with thick clay 
wash. Samuel L. Robertson, a man of much experience as 
manager and journeyman upon light work, informed me of a 
receipt for the mixture of sand for mould-boards which he had 
used for making irregularly shaped patterns for Taylor & Boggis, 
Cleveland, O. The mixture is composed of fiiie sand, boiled 
linseed oil, and litharge. The sand should be very dry. 
To about twenty parts sand add one of litharge, mix them 
thoroughly, and then sift the whole through a fine sieve. Wet 
with the oil to a temper of moulding-sand, such as would be 
used for moulding. This mixture is rammed the same as one 
would ram all moulding-sand. The board is left to dry for 
about twelve hours, and is then ready for use. The oil gives 
the sand firmness. The litharge is used as a dryer for the oil. 
It is not essential that all moulding-sand should be used : almost 
any sand of fine grain will do as well. Parting-sand, for in- 
stance, may sometimes be mixed with one-half moulding-sand 
to good advantage. Should there at any time be corners or 
edges broken, they can be mended by patching on beeswax. 



THE MOULD-BOARD AND FLASK-HINGE. 137 

In light work, the keeping of the joint edges of sand-mould 
boards sharp and unbroken, is of the utmost importance. A 
great many, to help preserve them, will nail all the joint 
edges : even then they will become ragged, and cause bad 
joint-work. The objection to plaster-board for fine work is 
about the same ; much working in and out of the pattern soon 
breaks the edges. The boards made with the oil and litharge 
keep their edges good and true surprisingly long, and it is on 
account of this that they are thought so well of ; and any who 
will give them a trial will, no doubt, be greatly pleased with 
the results. 

Alex. L. Faulkner, one of our Cleveland moulders, holds 
letters-patent upon an elastic follow-board composition, which 
I lately understand is being much used, and spoken very highly 
of. To some extent the above composition is like his ; but, 
from what I can learn, his manner of mixing and manipulating 
his composition makes a much superior ' ' follow-board ' ' to that 
which the above will give. Any one doing a large business 
in light work will no doubt find it will pay them to investigate 
this matter. 

As an auxiliary to the fast production of small work, the 
match-plate is often used to good advantage ; the making of 
which, although a simple affair, is in the minds of some 
thought to be work requiring fine manipulations and measure- 
ments, the same as is required in the making of wooden match- 
boards. In Nos. 2, 3, and 4 (Fig. 55), is illustrated the manner 
of constructing match-plates ; two patterns being selected, in 
one of which the indentation comes below the joint line, and 
in the other above it. 

At No. 2 the nowel is rammed up and joint made, F and E 
being the patterns. The cope, having been rammed up, looks 
as seen at top cut shown. The process so far is simply what 
one would do, were he makmg a casting from each of the 
respective patterns. As, instead of doing this, we intend to 



138 THE MOULD-BOARD AND FLASK-HINGE. 

construct a match-plate, extended manipulations are required, 
As the pattern portion is moulded, what is now wanted is to 
mould the plate portion. This is done by building up the 
joint as seen at PP, thereby giving whatever plate thickness is 
necessary for strength. The gates are cut the same as if the 
castings were to be poured by them. The cope is then closed, 
and the mould poured. The match-plate, as seen at No. 4, 
illustrates its use in the moulding of castings from it. The 
cut shows the nowel rammed up, cope set on, and gate-pin A, 
in place ready for being rammed up. At XX are the cope- 
pins. This match-plate when made had projections extending 
out beyond the plain edges so as to fit or make grooves for the 
pins to fit in, and make a true joint when the mould was 
closed. 

Should there be any overlapping of joints in the castings 
produced, the fault cannot be laid to the principle of making 
the match-plate : it will be the fault of shaky or untrue pins. 
This point, in making the match-plate as well as in using it, 
must be carefully watched, if true jointed castings are desired. 
In making wooden match-boards, of course different manipu- 
lations are required. The thickness of board is first made ; 
then, by measurement, which requires care and exactness, top 
indentations or projections are fastened over their correspond- 
ing parts. 

The match-board, or plate, is only practical for such work 
as is, in outline, plain and without acute corners, cores, or 
projections. In fact, of late years, since the art of making 
mould-boards, patterns, and gates has reached such perfection, 
the match-board or plate is seldom seen in use. 

Another device which is often found very useful in the fast 
production of small work is the " hinge." There are many 
different styles used. The hinge is something that might be 
often employed to excellent advantage in the making of difficult 
lifts, or in coping hanging indentations. The principles below 



THE MOULD-BOARD AND FLASK-HINGE. 139 

set forth, I simply give thinking the ideas may prove of value 
in some classes of work. When the centre of the hinge is on 
a line with the centre or joint of flask, the lift, at the moment 
of starting, tends towards the hinge side, thereby clearing any 
indentations the soonest upon side opposite hinge. To more 
clearly illustrate this, the cuts " inward " and " outward " are 
given. At inward, the centre of hinge B is considerably below 
the joint. The moment this cope is started, the lift will be 
inward, as shown by the arcs SS. In the upper cut, on 
account of the centre of hinge being above the joint, the 
reverse would be true, as shown by arcs BR. The distance 
of the hinges being so far below and above the joint, the arcs 
drawn from the centre of hinges show a true inward or out- 
ward movement, as the cope is raised or lowered. It is evi- 
dent from this illustration, that the matter of having a cope go 
from or towards the hinge side can be controlled, thereby 
assisting in getting good lifts when a movement in either direc- 
tion is desirable. Of course, the farther from the joint-centre 
the hinge is, the more rapid the outward or inward movement. 
The intersection of the line MN, with arcs cutting same, shows 
in what ratio the given radius or outside of flask rises com- 
pared with the inside. This ratio increases proportionately as 
the radius, or width of flask, increases. 

The cut of flask hinges shows two styles that are handy for 
light work. The upper style is to be secured to the joints of 
flask ; the lower one, to the sides. Either could be constructed 
so as to bring the centre of hinge below or above the joint, to 
cause inward or outward motion when first starting the cope, 
should it be desired. 



140 PIPES, CORES, AND HOLLOW PIPE PATTERNS. 



PIPES, GREEN-SAND CORES, AND HOLLOW 
PIPE PATTERNS. 

There are few foundries that do not, in some form, make 
more or less pipes ; and it is astonisliing to note how much 
faster the same class of pipe-work will be made in some shops 
tlian in others. This is mainly due to the difference in the 
facilities and rigging. In some shops, a man may have to 
work harder to make one pipe than he would in others to make 
four ; and, as a general thing, the shop that could turn out the 
four would require the least skill. Shops that produce such 
castings the slowest are, as a general thing, the ones that have 
the fewest to make, and therefore cannot afford the expense of 
getting up labor-saving rigging. There are times when a little 
outlay in some shops would be the cause of procuring much 
work," that, in the end, might result in the manufacture of a 
good paying specialty. 

The general jobbing-shop way is to make solid, dried-sand 
pipe-cores. The extra expense made thereby is the requiring 
of flour, and sometimes beer or molasses, to mix with the sand. 
It also requires much labor to make them, fuel to dry them, 
and the loss of sand ; and after all the time, labor, and expense, 
we can seldom produce a perfect, round, even core. 

A plan practised in some shops that make a specialty of 
green-sand pipe-castings is as illustrated in cut, Fig. 56, showing 
the sweeping of a green-sand core. This style of core is sure 
to produce a round hole ; and, with rigging properly gotten up, 
one man can make a large number of cores in a day. The sizes 
of pipe generally made by this plan range from 3" up to 12". 








Fig. 56. 



PIPES, CORES, AND HOLLOW PIPE PATTERNS. 141 

In making the core-arbors, there are two plans usually adopted. 
One is, to cast arbors having prickers, and the other, ribs, upon 
their surface, to assist in holding on the sand. To show what 
is meant by ribs, the sections F and S are given. At if, and 
in longitudinal section of core, prickers are illustrated. As a 
general thing, the ribs are used for the smaller sizes of arbors, 
on account of their making the arbors stiff, thereby preventing 
the core from springing up and shutting off the thickness of 
metal when the mould is poured. 

The larger arbors are in diameter, the more resistance to 
springing the}* generally have when moulds are being poured ; 
so that arbors over five inches in diameter can generally be 
made stout enough without the ribs. For holding the sand, 
prickers are to be preferred. The ribs separate, as it were, 
the sand into sections ; whereas the prickers keep it together 
more in one bod}'. The larger in diameter, the longer can pipes 
be made. A foot pipe could be some nine feet long ; a 3" pipe, 
four feet long ; and sizes between, in proportion. Of course, 
the stiffer arbors are made, the longer can the pipes be made. 
Were chaplets used with this class of cores, as with dry-sand 
cores, they could ])e made much longer. There is a way 
whereby chapk'ts can be used with some green-sand cores : 
that is, to have a knob about one inch in area cast or riveted 
to the arbor, as al)ove the chaplet X. This spot, being even 
with the surface of core, rests upon the chaplet, thereby caus- 
ing iron and iron to come together. For the cope, a small body 
of sand is taken out of the core, and some small plates or 
washers inserted, the top surfaces of which had better be kept 
1^" or so below the core surface. The space around these wash- 
ers or nuts is then filled in, and the core then made as smooth 
as the rest of its surface. Upon the top of the inserted pieces 
the cope chaplet rests. In so chapleting cores, care is required ; 
for, should the chaplets come otherwhere than intended, the 
core would be burst, and the casting, as well as the arbor, 



142 PIPES, CORES, AND HOLLOW PIPE PATTERNS. 

most likely lost. With such work, exact measurement and fit- 
tings are required. With large-diameter pipes, there might be 
danger, by thus chapleting, of bursting the casting, on account 
of the knob X, and the pieces above it, making a brace that 
would prevent contraction. Sometimes there is no danger of 
the core springing downwards, but there is a tendency to rise. 
When the lifting-strain of the fluid iron comes upon it in such 
cases as this, the bottom requiring no chaplet, the knob X 
could be upon the cope side, and the cores thereon be chapleted 
down, casting the pipe by having a chaplet only on the cope 
side. 

The reason for using the washers or loose plates instead of a 
solid body being secured to the arbors, as above X, is to allow 
the arbor to free itself. Were the top the same as bottom, 
there would be immovable iron to iron. By having loose 
washers or plates, the jarring of arbor soon causes it to be free, 
thereby letting it come out. 

Core arbors should be well perforated with small holes, to 
allow the gases to escape. The thickness of sand upon arbors 
ranges from f" to 1". The more dry the sand can be practi- 
cally used, the better. In sweeping up a core, the process 
generally is to wet the arbor with clay wash or water, and after 
being set upon the horses the sweep board is set, sand is packed 
by hand upon the arbor, after which, with a man turning slowly, 
the sweep board is lightly pressed forward until it strikes the 
gauge guide which gives the diameter wanted. The arbor 
ends, A H^ can be used to give the diameter; but having the 
core gauged independently of the arbor is to be preferred, as 
the friction of the turning will wear away the guide, and also 
more or less vibrate the arbor, thereby often causing the sand 
to drop. 

A point that here might be mentioned is, that the less sleek- 
ing done to pipe cores, the better. In fact, it is best not to 
sleek them at all, leaving the surface as it is swept, as thereby 
the metal lies more kindly to the core. 



PIPES, CORES, AND HOLLOW PIPE PATTERNS. 143 

In casting the larger-sized pipes, it is essential that the 
arbors should have reliable bearings. 3" up to 4" pipes could 
be east by having sand print bearings ; but above this last size 
the arbor ends, A H, would be better if turned up true, so as 
to exactly fit the flask iron ends, as shown at MM. The cut 
T T shows the end without the core in. The arbors being 
true, the flask ends would of course require to be the same. 
By having arbors set in such bearings, it is evident that the core 
will be kept central, and that its weight cannot sink it down, 
or the liquid iron raise it up ; that is, as far as the prints are 
concerned. It might be well to mention that the pattern prints 
must fit into the flask ends when moulding the pipes, in order 
to have the mould central with the flask ends. In making 
arbors having such iron-end bearings, one, if not both, should 
be made smaller than the niside of intended pipe, so they may 
be readily got out of the castings. 

The longitudinal section of mould shows a flange on one end 
and a socket on the other. This is only to illustrate the idea 
that either kind can be made. In the smaller sizes of pipe, it is 
not necessary that the arbors should be larger at socket end, as 
shown at H. If the arbors are straight their entire length, 
and the sand reasonably tough, the little extra thickness re- 
quired to form the socket will hang. 

The plug seen at E is inserted for the purpose of lifting the 
core. Where arbors are large enough to admit a trunnion being 
riveted on, as seen opposite i?, it is advisable to do so, as they 
can be revolved easier. Revolving arbors, by having their 
whole diameter turn in a bearing, as seen at A, cause much 
friction. 

The cuts of elbow and branch pipes illustrate the making of 
pipes with hollow patterns, they being the same as the castings 
wanted. At ^ £' is shown a sectional view of the pattern. 
The nowel having been rammed up, the core arbor P is then 
set in and rammed up. The cope part of pattern is tnen set 



144 PIPES, CORES, AND HOLLOW PIPE PATTERNS. 

on, and sand tucked in. The joint having been made, the copo 
is rammed up, and, after being lifted off, the top pattern is 
drawn. By taking hold of the arbor handles, Nos. 1, 2, and 
3, the core is lifted out ; the bottom pattern is then drawn, and 
the mould finished. The core is then set back, and cope closed. 
The end of arbor at No. 3 is of a style different from Nos. 1 
and 2. Arbor ends as at Nos. 1 and 2 are handy for small 
pipe. The arbor is set on the mould board, and the nowel half 
of the pattern over it ; then the nowel is rammed up and turned 
over, the arbor forming its own print. This style is not recom- 
mended for heavy cores, as it does not give print enough to 
hold up very much weight. 

The arbor as at No. 3 is of the same form outside the pattern 
as it is inside. To form prints for such arbors, with hollow 
patterns, there could be half-round blocks, as shown in plan at 
B, rammed up with the nowel half of pattern, and then, when 
the nowel is rolled over, draw out the blocks. This would 
leave prints formed ready to set in the arbors. 

The quarter-turn pipe shows the plan of an arbor made so as 
to balance the core ; the balancing wing projecting beyond the 
mould prevents the back W from sinking down as it would 
were both ends of arbor the same as at N^ and the back not 
chapleted. This style of an arbor can, of course, be operated 
as regards rolling-over and print-making, the same as the T 
arbor described. 

At Yis shown a core rod, and core made upon it. The head 
D admits of the core being lifted vertically, and also is a sup- 
port to the core if rested upon its end. This class of green- 
sand cores can be used vertically or horizontally, and for pipes 
about one foot long, 2" or 3" in diameter, where their manufac- 
ture is to be made a specialty, they are worthy of consideration. 
The cores are rammed in a box endwise, and require to be 
vented, for which, in some cases, it might be well to have two 
or three vent holes drilled through the head D. 



PIPES, CORES. AND HOLLOW ^ii>E PATTERNS. 145 

Green-sand cores, as a general thing, require more or less 
rigging, which is one reason why more shops do not use them. 
The holes formed by green-sand cores, as a general thing, for 
•^ootJiness and being true, surpass those made by dry-sand 
cores ; and generally thinner castings can be made with green- 
sand than with dry-sand cores. The making of green-sand 
cores often requires much skill. There are many cores being 
made of dry sand that could be made of green sand ; but, like 
many other things in moulding, it often requires practical ex- 
perience and good judgment to decide the feasibility of making 
them. 



146 BEDDING-IN AND ROLLING-OVEIl. 



BEDDING-IN AND ROLLING-OVER. 

Bedding-in and rolling-over patterns in moulding have each 
their special advantage. As a general thing, rolled-over moulds 
are the simplest to construct ; the reverse being the case with 
bedded-in castings. A moulder that cannot successfully turn 
out a good general run of castings by rolling-over need never 
attempt it by bedding-in. The writer is well aware that there 
are castings that cannot be as reliably made by rolling-over as 
by bedding-in ; but this fact does not change the sense of the 
statement made. It will be acknowledged by all practical 
moulders who have had experience in both rolling-over and 
bedding-in, that to do general bedding-in requires higher skill 
than rolling-over. Any shop that does most of its moulding 
by rolling-over can often get along with less-skilled mechanics 
than where the patterns, as a general thing, are bedded-in. 

When a moulder is furnished with nice patterns and flasks, 
the requirements are often like those of machine labor : the 
physical, and not the mental powers, are the ~ ones most 
required. TFe?*e there more bedding-in practised^ loe should have 
more and better-sMlled tradesmen. A novice, in travelling 
through the foundries of the country, would be at a loss to 
reason why shops, in making similar castings, do not adopt 
similar methods. He sees one bedding-in almost every thing : 
another he finds rolling-over every thing. In many cases, this 
puzzles even practical men to reasonably explain. One can go 
into many shops, and there see patterns being bedded-in, that, 
all i)oiuts considered, could be better rolled-over : then, again, 
be will find the reverse, there being large, expensive flasks 



BEDDING-IN AND ROLLING-OVER. 1 17 

used for moulds that could be made in less time and with fai- 
less risk by being bedded-in. There is no doubt that upon 
this point there are shops that are working in error. Almost 
every machinery foundry has some jobs, that, in point of 
economy and safety, would be better were they bedded-in, and 
some that would be better rolled-over. 

Sometimes circumstances may be such as to call for a pattern 
being bedded-in when, properly, it should be rolled-over. This, 
however, is no excuse for the wide difference in shop practice. 

I have seen practical men, who, when questioned why they 
did not have certain jobs bedded-in, would say they knew it 
was the proper way to mould them ; but, having so little of 
that class of work to do, they did not like to have their shop 
floors all dug up. This is, no doubt, in many cases, a good 
reason for not bedding-in work. Shops in which most of the 
work is bedded-in are, as a class, the dirtiest and ugliest to be 
found. It is practically impossible to keep them as clean and 
orderly as a shop that does all rolling-over. A foreman that 
loves order hates to see his shop a jumble of holes, sand-heaps, 
and foundry- tools. He may, to some extent, control and keep 
order ; but to this there is a limit. It can be carried so far as 
to be a source of expense rather than of profit. My lot has 
been chiefly to be employed with the dirty class of shops. It 
has often made me feel envious of my brother tradesmen who 
work in the clean shops, to think with what comfort they can 
work ; and I would long ago have been one of their number, 
were it not for the charm that bedded-in and heavy work has 
for me. There is a fascination about bedding-in, that many 
moulders enjoy. 

Tho advantage that bedding-in has over rolling-over is, in the 
first place, the saving of flask-making ; second, the rigiduess 
with which sides and bottoms of moulds can be suppoited 
against the strains of high and heavy heads of metal ; third, 
the assurance it often presents of making a casting the dupli- 



148 iSEDDING-lN AND ROLLING-OVER. 

cate of the pattern in shape. The twisting and wrenching thai 
are given large flasks in being tnrned over, often makes it impos- 
sible to make a casting as true as its pattern. This point was 
ably brought out in an article by " Foundryman," in "The 
American Machinist " of March 10, 1883, entitled, " Moulding 
a Bevel Wheel." 

For the reader's benefit, I here insert the article as it origin- 
ally appeared : — 

"How far the introduction of machinery may influence the 
art of moulding in a way to render results surer, and products 
more perfect, is as yet a matter of speculation. There are 
castings that in some localities are moulded and cast without 
much regard to the duty to be performed by them. Take, as 
an illustration, gearing. It is claimed that gears moulded by 
machines are nearer perfect than those made from whole pat- 
terns rammed up and cast in the usual way. 

' ' The common method of making moulds for gears is to ram 
up the drag or nowel, turn over, ram up the cope, remove cope, 
and draw the pattern, etc. This method will do for gears that 
are 18" or less in diameter, and for wooden patterns up to 20" 
diameter ; but I believe that it is a practical impossibility to 
make a true spur or bevel gear 24" or more in diameter by 
' turning over.' 

" There are several reasons why. First, It is impossible, or 
rather impracticable, to make a soft bed to receive the cleats 
of pattern-board so that, when rolled over, all parts of the 
cleats and corners will bear equally on the bed ; and where it 
bears lightest, the mould will settle, and produce a casting out 
of round, and the teeth at that particular place will be larger 
than those where the sand has not settled away from the 
pattern. 

" Second, In turning over the drag when rammed up, as in 
common practice, the lower side of flask (if square and of 
wood) bears on the floor, and is compressed ; and when on the 



BEDDIXG-IN AND ROLLIXG-OVER. 149 

bed it springs out, leaving the sides of flask free from sand. 
Wlieu the casting is poured, the pressure forces the sand out 
again, leaving the casting out of round. These imperfections 
may not be so radical in character as to condemn the casting, 
Init the wheel will not run with the same accuracy as one 
l)cdded-in and not turned over. In many shops this fact is 
well known, but the writer has been in others where the above 
remarks were as pure Greek. As an illustration : A bevel gear 
about four feet diameter, for a horse-power machine, was given 
to a new hand in a shop to mould. He put his bottom-board 
down good and solid, then levelled up drag, and proceeded to 
bed-in the gear. 

" The proprietor came in, and, seeing the moulder's way was 
a new one to him, told him he had been at considerable expense 
to make a foUow-board for that wheel, so as to get a true cast- 
mg, and he would like to see it used. The moulder asked him 
if he ever made an absolutely true wheel. ' Not exactly ti"ue,' 
was the answer ; ' but much better than by any other way, 
excepting your present plan, and that I never saw before.' 

" Says the moulder, ' If this gear is not true when cast, it 
will be because your pattern is not true.' When cast, and put 
on the boring-mill, it was found to be true, and acknowledged 
to be the only true wheel ever cast from that pattern. 

' ' Bevel gears of light rim suffer more than spur gears in 
rolling-over. 

"Now, one important reason why machine-moulded gears 
are nearer true than those made by whole patterns is the fact 
that they are not turned over, and the contents of flask wrenched 
and twisted in the process." 

It is amusing to see how some moulders who have never 
done bedding-in go about such jobs. Not very long ago a 
moulder who thought himself a first-class man started to work 
under my supervision. I gave him a pattern, with instructions 
to bed it in. He said, if he had a flask to roll it over, he could 



160 BEDDING-IN AND ROLLtNG-OVER. 

make it in half the time. My answer was, that we did uot 
make a practice of making expensive flasks, that could be 
saved by bedding-in ; especially so where there was only one 
or two of a piece to make. He started at the job ; and at the 
end of about two hours he put on his coat, remarking to a 
moulder that he was not going to work in a shop where the}' 
had to lie upon their bellies to make a mould. The trouble 
was, he did not know how to bed-in, and would willingly have 
kept that position all day if it would have given him the knowl- 
edge which his conceit prevented others from giving him. 

Among moulders who bed-in, there are two plans that are 
often adopted. One is to pound cloivn a pattern, and the other 
to tuck it up. This pounding-down business I do not approve 
of. In the first place, it causes a mould to be the reverse of 
what its condition should be (a point which is fully treated in 
vol. i. p. 28) ; in the second place, it abusjes a pattern ; and in 
the thii'd place, although it may often be a quick process, it is 
not by any means a mechanical one. 

Any hull-head can sledge down, but it requires skill to tuck up. 

There are a large number of patterns that can be either 
sledged down or tucked up ; the one shown in sketch being of 
that class. In sledging down such patterns, the process with 
some is generally to first dig out a hole, and fill it up with 
sand " riddled through the shovel," then sift on about ^" thick- 
ness of facing-sand, on top of which set the pattern, and on 
top of this the block, without any regard to which wa}' the 
grain of pattern timber runs, as shown in Fig. 57. 

Then sledge down the pattern until about level with the sand- 
bed ; that is, providing the pattern holds together. There is 
no intention to here convey the idea that a sledge should never 
be used. There are very few patterns that can be bedded-iu 
without the use of one. What is condemned is the uncalled- 
for abuse so often given. 

To properly tuck up such a pattern, the hole is generally dug 



BEDDING-IX AND ROLLING-OVER. 



151 



out about 3" deeper than the pattern, and the pattern is jilaccd 
accurately upon four blocks or wedges, as at B ; or, the four 
bearings may be sand-mounds ; with the hand, sand is tucked 




under the pattern, facing-sand being used against the flanges, 
after which the pattern is drawn, and the surface of the mould 
felt all over, and any soft spots found filled up with facing- 



152 BEDDING-IN AND ROLLING-OVER. 

stind. A thickness of about ^" facing-sand is then sifted on 
the surface, and the pattern returned. A sledge and block 
are then intelligently used to knock it down about ^" ; after 
which the sides XX are rammed up, the joint scraped off, and 
the pattern sighted to see if it is out of wind. This completes 
the bedding-in. 

While the foregoing, in substance, is one proper wa}^ to bed- 
in, I will dwell upon a few details showing different wa3's of 
handling such jobs. Some, in tucking up such jobs, especially 
if the boss is not looking, will use all facing-sand for the 
inside. Others will use all common heap-sand, and when the 
pattern is drawn they will press facing-sand against the sides ; 
and after sifting ^" thickness, or such a matter, over the sur- 
face, the pattern is knocked down to its bed. Some, again, 
will draw the pattern up to examine if all places are firm and 
of an even hardness. There is a great difference in the ability 
of moulders to make a firm bed the first time : some will have 
to draw out a pattern three or four times before they can get 
as firm and reliable tuck as others can obtain by once drawing 
out. 

Before gomg any farther, there are two points which I would 
call especial attention to. The first is the rapping-down of 
tucked-up patterns. Before a pattern is first drawn, the guid- 
ing-stakes should be driven so as to be a guide in showing how 
much tlie pattern is to be knocked down. At E the stake is 
shown driven, having its top even with the top of pattern, 
there being one of these stakes at each corner. When the 
pattern is returned, it is readily shown how much it should be 
pounded down. I doubt if one-fourth of the moulders ever 
make any calculation upon knocking down a pattern. Some 
of them pound until the jiattern will go no farther, and others 
won't impress it enough. Ever}' piece that is bedcled-in should 
have a limit to its impression into the bed, and the moulder 
should use his judgment as to what that limit is. The majority 



BEDDING-IX AND ROLLING-OVER. 153 

of moulders can tell, by feeling a mould, whether it is too hard 
or too soft. This is certainly an accomplishment, but it would 
be a better one to know how and when the}' were making it 
hard or soft. Tlie second point I. would like to call up is 
shown at D. This represents a plan which a few moulders 
have, of facing the sides of tucked-up moulds with facing- 
sand, — a very good plan too. It is simply cutting out a 
piece of the side of the mould at a time, and then, by means 
of a board Z), ramming up the cut-out place, as at S^ with 
facing-sand, until the whole side is rammed up. This plan for 
heavy work, where sides or flanges cannot l)e gotten at to ram 
them solidly up with facing while the pattern is in place, is a 
good one to adopt, as it gives every chance to make a firm 
surface when the pattern is withdrawn. There are man}' pat- 
terns where portions of level beds can be used to assist in 
beddiug-in, the plain surfaces of the patterns resting upon the 
beds, and the irregular parts being tucked up. Wherever a 
levelled Ited can be used, it should be, as there is no wa}' that 
a mould's bottom can be controlled and made so reliable. 

Although levelling a bed is a simple affair, it is astonishing 
what a small per cent of our moulders know how to go about 
it ; yet to accomplish it requires no great skill, as will be seen 
by tlie following. In levelling a bed, one side, as F, should 
be first levelled up, after which set the opposite one, P. Then 
upon the top of each and at one end, as seen, set a parallel 
straight-edge (by parallel, I mean that it must be exactly the 
same width at each end, not 6" at one end and b\" at the 
Other) . The straight-edges F and P do not require to be par- 
allel, but N must be if a level bed is wanted. With the 
parallel straight-edge, level across from F to P, then try the 
level on P; and if it should not be level, make it so by raising 
or lowering the end at P. Then test the straight-edges by 
going over them all two or three times if necessary. Another 
point to be watched is the level, which in a foundrj^ soon gets 



154 BEDDING-IN AND ROLLING-OVER. 

out of truth. The way to test a level is to turn it end for end 
If it shows level one way, and not another, it is out of truth. 
The only way to use such a level is to turn it end for end, and 
make the bulb stand the same distance from the centre mark 
each way. 

Under the sti'aight-edges shown are four wedges, represent- 
ing what should be sand-mounds. The middle portion of the 
straight-edges should be kept clear until they are levelled up, 
after which tuck under them, and then test them again. Level- 
ling straight-edges having a bearing their entire length, causes 
a loss of time and extra labor. The holes seen in the straight- 
edges are to hang them up by, something that is not always 
done. 

The six holes seen in the pattern, being bedded-in, show a 
provision that ought to be allowed in many patterns to give 
the moulder a chance to tuck them up. A pattern to be used 
for rolling-over work, and one for bedding-in, should seldom 
be made upon the same plan, although the^^ generally are. A 
pattern to be bedded-in should be well braced, and made of good 
strong lumber; for the reason that bedded-in patterns have to 
stand more or less sledge-pounding, and where they are like 
a hollow box it is often impossible for the moulder to make the 
bottom of his mould as solid and reliable as it should be. 




-^ 54- -fe *i 



S 



Fold-out 
Placeholder 



^, 



This fold-out is being digitized, and will be in 

future date. 



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COPING, VENTING, AND JOINTING GREEN-SAND MOULDS. I'tt) 



COPING, VENTING, AND JOINTING GREEN- 
SAND MOULDS. 

The proper coping, venting, and jointing of moulds is very 
essential to the production of good castings. Many castings 
have their beauty ruined by an %(gly joint. Irregularly shaped 
joints in a mould will test a man's ability as a moulder about 
as sharply as any thing connected with moulding. 

Some moulders will make such joints without the use of any 
judgment, while others adopt proper methods. The results can 
generally be seen, in both instances, in the castings produced. 

In the engraving, I have endeavored to show a right and a 
wrong way of making the joints of irregularly parted moulds. 
As a rule, the larger the body of sand to be lifted, the better 
the chances of successfully lifting it. The trouble is with the 
fine or small bodies. These fine bodies often require consider- 
able manipulation ; and the precaution of not having fine bodies 
or points of sand to be lifted, whenever they can be avoided, 
should always be taken. 

It is astonishing how many moulders practise jointing irreg- 
ular patterns as marked " wrong" in the engraving (Fig. 58). 

In machinery moulding, irregular surfaces of joints are gen- 
erally lifted by the aid of " gaggers " and "soldiers," or by 
rods and nails ; the gaggers and soldiers being used for plain 
surfaces, and rods and nails for points and corners. 

If a joint can be made so that gaggers can be squarely and 
evenly placed, and so rammed upon it, the chances of obtain- 
ing a good lift are improved. It requires but little penetration 
to see, that, in the engraving, the part marked "right" pre- 




=old-out 
3ceholder 



eing digitized, and will be inserted at 
future date. 



c 
w 

> 



^3 



156 COPING, VENTING, AND JOINTING GREEN-SAND MOULDS 

sents a better bottom upon which to set gaggers than the part 
marked " wrong." 

To lift a body of sand, or a joint, the less sand there is under 
the gaggers, the better. Sometimes joint-gaggers are set with 
no sand under them ; but this is not generally to be approved 
of, as it does not make a neat joint, and might, in case of 
straining at the joint, cause the mould to " kick." 

When it becomes necessary to patch a joint, from not get- 
ting a good lift, it is usually very difficult to get it as perfect as 
it would otherwise have been. Sometimes the pattern can be 
set on the cope to assist in getting the required shape ; but 
even then it can seldom be accurately done. 

The best-jointed castings are those where no joint-patching 
was required. The word loatclied should generall}' be connected 
with botched; although it is easier to botch a job than to patch 
it, and some moulders who will do a good job of patching are 
far from being botchers. 

At X, F, and N is shown a plan of setting lifting-bars, that 
I, for two reasons, seldom approve of. The first reason is, 
that it compels the placing of the flat side of a bar parallel with 
the surface of the pattern, thereby often necessitating ramming 
and holding a thin, flat body of sand in its place. In ramming 
sand in such narrow pockets, the best judgment must be used. 
If the sand is rammed too hard, the gases will not escape 
freely, and scabbing or blowing will be likely to result. An- 
other objection is, that when it is necessary to roll the cope 
over, the thin, flat cake of sand is likely to drop off, unless 
securely "rodded." 

I always try to have bars for lifting out pockets, or carrying 
hubs or other projections, arranged so that there will be a con- 
siderable body of sand around them. This not only lessens the 
danger of bad results, but gives more room for ramming up 
and for seeing what is being done. 

The second obiection to using bars in pockets as above shown 



COPING, VENTING, AND JOINTING GREEN-SAND MOULDS. 157 

is, that setting the gaggers is inconveniently done, and the 
danger of a "drop-out " is increased. 

In this cut, three plans for making deep-pocket joints are 
shown. 

At A is represented a plan that will give a free lift, but 
involves setting many gaggers, and uniiandy ramming. At 6 
and 9 is shown how this plan of barring causes gaggers to be 
set, which makes the ramming awkward, marks the joints, and 
does not securely hold the sand. 

At B the joint is made more nearl}^ vertical, by which the 
above objections are to a great extent removed. 

In making a joint for such partings, the more nearly vertical 
it can be made, the better: 4" slant to a foot in height will 
generall}^ work satisfactorily. 

At K. the irregular line, is represented a plan sometimes 
resorted to on the plea of lack of room, poor tools, etc. The 
plan shown is a very poor one. 

Numerals 1,6, and 9 upon the left represent lack of judg- 
ment in trying to lift a body of sand. The gaggers seem to be 
set on the theory, that, if they are only gaggers, that is all that 
is required. The sand at 9 would be more likely to be lifted if 
the gagger were not used, as its length is only about that of the 
body of sand to be lifted, and iron is heavier than sand. 

Nos. 1 and 6 represent conditions not much better. No. 1 
shows how eas}- it is to put one clumsy gagger where it will do 
the least good, or where there should not be any. 

If I could not have bars as at J5 , and it were necessary to set 
a gagger at 1, I would keep it up about 3" higher, and turn the 
toe of 8 the reverse of what it now is, so as to bring the point 
of the gagger under the bar towards the hub. 

The hook shown on 8 is generally made only on wrought-iron 
gaggers. It is often serviceable for carrying heavy bodies of 
hanging sand. In some shops, wrought-iron gaggers are used 
almost exclusively, while in others cast-iron ones have the pref- 



158 COPING, VENTING, AND JOINTING GREEN-SAND MOULDS. 

erence. While I prefer those of cast-iron, for general use, as 
they will not spring, are cheaper to make, and can be readily 
broken off to any desired length, I also like to have some 
wrought gaggers, as they can be bent to set upon slanting 
surfaces, etc. 

I am aware that some will object to breaking gaggers, and 
that in some shops the rule is that they shall not be broken ; 
but before I would allow them to be left sticking out of a cope, 
as at 6 (where there are none short enough to be found) , I would 
have them broken so as to come no higher than 5. Gaggers 
sticking up, as at 6, are liable to be hit, resulting probably in 
losing the casting. I never allow gaggers to be left standing 
above the cope, if it can be possibly avoided. 

Gaggers 4 and 5, in connection with the bars as at E ^ repre- 
sent good practice. Gaggcr 2 shows how gaggers are some- 
times badly set by the side of deep hubs and flanges. 

No. 3 represents a better plan ; and if the cope is to be rolled 
over, use more gaggers as the height of ramming increases. 
The points of gaggers against the flat surfaces of hubs, flanges, 
etc., cannot do the harm flat surfaces can when set as at 2 ; 
that is, by producing hard and soft spots in the mould. 

The ramming is also an important factor in getting good lifts. 
The ramming of a body of sand to be lifted should be firmly 
and evenly done. In the cut, at the point marked " Copes 
staked," may be seen the marks of the rammer impressed in 
what should be a level joint. In some cases this would pre- 
vent the sand from being lifted, even though well barred and 
gaggered. 

In making irregularly jointed snap-flask moulds, the joint is 
generally the point of particular importance. Fins on such 
castings often condemn them. With this class of work, a per- 
fect joint will, in most cases, provide for a perfect casting. A 
good bench-moulder pays especial attention to his flask-pins : 
he sees that they are not loose or shaky, and that they fit true. 



COPING, VENTING, AND JOINTING GREEN-SAND MOULDS 159 

Floor-moulders have so many other things that claim their at- 
tention and time, that the joint seldom gets the attention it 
deserves. It is apt to be thought, if the casting is all right with 
the exception of the joint, that a chisel and file will soon fix 
that. The quicker such ideas are got rid of, the better. 

A floor-moulder should take the same pride in the joints of 
his castings that the bench-moulder does. 

In small work, thei'e are. two objectionable joint features. 
One is the fin, and the other " overshotness." In heavy work, 
the fin can seldom be avoided, but overshotness should always 
be. 

The stake marked ' ' Ring ' ' shows how stakes are often 
driven, thereby providing for bad lifts and overshot castings. 
The stake on the opposite side is driven correctl}'. The ring 
on the stake is made by cutting off pieces of wrought-iron pipe 
of the proper diameter. They are good for protecting the stakes 
from the blows of the sledge-hammer. 

In staking flasks for ordinary work, at least two-thirds the 
length of the stake should be driven in the ground. Some- 
times, for greater surety, it is advisable to drive two stakes, 
one behind the other. 

With good sand or plaster-of-Paris mould-boards, the skill 
and labor of making partings or joints are saved. It is where 
joints must be made by hand, that the skill of the moulder is 
tested. 

With some irregular light mould joints, it is often advisable 
to start up the pattern when the joint is nearly completed. 
This will show if all parts have been made so that the pattern 
will draw freely. The pattern is then to be lightly rapped into 
its bed, and the joint completed. Then the cope is rammed and 
lifted, and the pattern withdrawn. 

To still further insure getting a "good lift," it is often a 
good plan to arrange for rapping the pattern before the cope 
is lifted off. This is done by having rapping-plates on the 



160 COPING, VENTING, AND JOINTING GREEN-SAND MOULDS. 

pattern, if of wood ; or having holes in the pattern, if of iron. 
Then, when ramming up the cope, ram up gates in the holes ; 
and then, with a pointed bar set in the pattern holes, it can be 
lightly rapped in all directions. This is a plan adopted by 
most bench-moulders, the only difference being that their rap- 
ping is generally done through the same gate- hole as that by 
which the mould is poured. 

With copes where two or more men are required to lift them, it 
is often a good plan to raise the cope an inch or two by slightly 
raising a corner at a time, inserting a wedge to hold it up. 

Again, it may be advisable to raise one end or side at a time ; 
but in either case the corner, end, or side should be raised only 
a small distance, — sometimes not more than ^-^" at a time at 
first, — which distance can usually be increased at each succes- 
sive lifting. 

In order to assist in getting good lifts with a crane, iron 
starting-bars are sometimes placed as shown. Usually the 
first starting of the cope is the most important. If it is started 
so as to jerk one side up before the other, the most careful 
gaggering, ramming, etc., will have been of but little avail in 
giving a first-class lift. 

There are two more points upon which I will express an 
opinion, and which may be of interest to those moulding heavy 
work. At F, in the lower cut, is represented a plan of cutting 
fins, which may be new to many. Of course, fins are objec- 
tionable, and should be avoided upon light castings, and upon 
heavy ones where the joint is on the casting-surface, as in col • 
umns and similar castings. But for heavy castings, where the 
cope surface ends at the joint, or the mould does not project 
up into the cope, as shown at PF, and also for bad or heavy 
drawing-patterns, cutting fins is often advisable for two reasons. 
The first is, that in drawing heavy patterns the joint of the 
mould is to a greater or less degree started. This may be 
sleeked down, but to get the benefit of any doubt it is often 



COriNG, VENTING, AND JOINTING GREEN-SAND MOULDS. IGl 

^ise to cut for a fin. Of course the idea is, to be sure the 
cope does not touch the mould at the joint's edge. The fin 
should run from the surface of the mould back from 2" to 4", 
wedge-shaped, as shown. The thickness of the fin at the mould 
should be determined by a consideration of the degree to which 
the mould is started in drawing the pattern, and to some 
extent by the temperature of the iron to be poured. For dull 
iron, the fin should be thicker than for hot iron. For safety, 
and to assist in getting good heavy castings, they are usually 
poured with dullish iron. In pouring dull iron, the upper edge 
or surface of the casting is likelj' to be wavy, prest.ntiug the 
appearance of cold shut. Cutting a fin at the edge of the cast- 
ing is, to some extent, a remedy for this ; as it assists in the 
escape of confined gases and dust, or permits them to be held 
in a space, which if the metal does not fill no harm will be 
done. Observing moulders know that an open sand casting 
can, by pouring with dull iron, be made from ^" to ^" thicker 
than the mould, for the simple reason that the top edge runs 
rounding, allowing the surface to run higher than the edge. 
Coped castings would run rounding in the same way, were it 
not for the fact that the head pressure forces the metal into 
filling the top edges ; but this head pressure is sometimes 
insuflftcient to fill the edges. In the case of a mould in which 
a fin is cut, the chance of the above occurrence is measurably 
lessened ; and, the thicker the fin, the greater the extent to 
which it is lessened. 

The sides and under portions of moulds are often vented 
direct from the surface of the joint, as on the side P. Vent- 
ing as at S is not always reliable for heavy castings, because 
there is a chance that the metal will get into the joint ; it also 
makes the management of the joint laborious. On the side F 
is represented a far more reliable way to vent such moulds. 
When the pattern is rammed up to within from 4" to 6" of the 
joint, the side is then vented, and fine cinders placed as showu. 



162 COPING, VENTING, AND JOINTING GREEN-SAND MOULDS. 

The remainder of the depth is then rammed up, and vented 
down into the cinders, no signs of joint vents being visible. 
At T is shown how the vents are carried away from these 
cinders by a row of vents made from the joint surface to 
the cinders. In some cases, this plan will work well without the 
use of joint cinders, by venting down vertically from the joint 
surface, and stopping up the holes so they will not be seen ; the 
vents r, being thickly inserted, will indirectly bring the verti- 
cal side vents to the joint surface as shown. 

Sometimes, to make joints more secure, and to keep them 
free from vent-holes, channels of cinders might be connected 
with the joint cinders shown, and led out as far from the 
mould as desired, and connected with surface outlets, which 
could be done by ramming up vent sticks, or by digging down 
to them after the mould is ready for pouring. 

The cinders shown are placed very near to the pattern sur- 
face, so they will cover the side vents. Placing cinders so 
near a surface may sometimes be objectionable, because they 
weaken the surface of the mould so that the head pressure may 
strain the casting. In case of apparent danger from this 
cause, the cinders ma}^ be kept back 4" to 8" fi'oni the pattern 
surface ; and by making a gutter the vertical vents can be con- 
nected with it by oblique vents. _ The wire for these vertical 
vents may be \". It should never be allowed nearer than 2" 
from the surface of the pattern, and should be kept parallel 
with the face of the pattern. 

If the moulding-sand is clayey or too fine, it is sometimes 
advisable to vent vertically, in addition to ^" wire vents, with 
^" wire ; the vents being near together and within about \" of 
the face of pattern. In fact, this last-named plan will always 
help to assure good results, the only objection to it being that 
it takes time to do it. 

Some sands are so open that the sides need be only vented 
with the fine wire. When this is the case, the venting is done 



COPING, VENTING, AND JOINTING GREEN-SAND MOULDS. 163 

at each alternate ramming until the top of the joint is reached. 
If it is not advisable to carry the vents off by cinders, as shown 
at jT, they can be taken up direct through and off at the surface 
of the joint, by reaching them with ^" oblique joint vents. 

Another plan sometimes adopted is, to carry the side vents 
down to a lower cinder-bed (when one is required under the 
mould). By this plan, the gases, which would rise naturally, 
are forced down. A mould will not free itself so easily when 
vented in this way, as when the gases are permitted to rise. 

In venting very deep moulds, that require hard ramming to 
prevent straining, I recommend that every other course be 
vented with ^" wire, and, at about every 18" of depth, make a 
gutter about 4" from the face of the pattern. From this gutter, 
vent straight down to the lower stratum of cinders with a f" 
vent wire. Small oblique vents cah also be made between the 
vertical vents ; care being taken not to touch the pattern, which 
might permit the iron to find its way into the large vents and 
fine cinders. This oblique venting, however, will seldom be 
required if all the space between the large f" vents and the 
pattern is well vented with the ^" vent wire. Cinders placed 
near the surface of a pattern, as is often necessary to carry off 
vents, should be no larger than those that will pass through a 
^" riddle : cinders any coarser than this will permit a mould to 
strain. Fine cinders, when rammed and surrounded by sand, 
present an astonishing resistance to pressure ; and are not only 
good for carrying off vents, but they will not admit leakage of 
iron through vent holes, filling up and destroying their air-pas- 
sages, as coarse cinders will. Coarse cinders should seldom be 
used unless making bottom cinder-beds : even then, when they 
are required to support much strain, they are often better cov- 
ered with what would be called fine cinders. Coarse cinders 
are generally so called when they are larger than egg size. 



161: DRAWING AND MAKING PATTERNS, 



DRAWING AND MAKING PATTERNS. 

The complaint of moulders against pattern-makers, for lack 
of taper to their patterns, is often justifiable. A great many 
pattern-makers work as if they were house-joiners, or were 
making tool-chests or children's toys, only occasionally getting 
an idea that they are working for the foundry by seeing a dirty 
moulder pass them. Why pattern-makers will not give suf- 
ficient taper to patterns, when there is nothing to prevent it, is 
a question that has often puzzled many a moulder. The attain- 
ments of the pattern-maker in the way of draughting, and in 
working wood into various forms, count as nothing with the 
moulder if he constructs patterns that will not draw well. The 
moulder's skill is proved by having a ^'- good cast;" the pat- 
tern-maker's (if he only knew it), by having a '■'- good draw." 
To have corners, edges, or portions of moulds started or broken 
through ill-drawing patterns, is not only very aggravating, but 
is often the cause of defective castings. 

Another point is the hammer abuse that patterns receive. 
Moulders are called destructive because patterns are pounded. 
If we are destructive, the pattern-makers are greatly to blame 
for it. Give us patterns properly provided with draw screws or 
irons and raiyping-holes, and of a good taper, and our acquired 
practice of unmercifully hammering every thing that comes 
along will very soon be lost. 

Before patterns can be drawn, they generally require to be 
loosened. To accomplish this, the moulder must do some ham- 
mering. Some one may suggest the use of a pounding-block, 
to preserve the pattern. As a general thing, this is used when 



DRAWING AND MAKING PATTERNS. 



165 



practicable. The poiinding-block cannot always be used to 
loosen a pattern, because it frequently only causes vibration. 
To loosen and to vibrate are different things. The loosening is 
required before starting to draw. The vibration is the second 
requirement, or that necessary to lessen surface friction or 
f\dhesiou when drawing the pattern up. 

Arrangements for loosening patterns are seldom provided. 
Let one go through almost any machinery-pattern warehouse in 
tlie country, and he will find the patterns scarce having good 
provisions for preserving them from the effects of the " loosen- 
ing-bar " and hammer. What rapping-holes are seen were 
most likely first made by a moulder with an auger or a pointed 




Joirit 




Fig. 60. 



iron bar. In a short time the holes become so large^ you can 
hardly see any pattern. It is proper for pattern makers and 
owners to take some of the blame for abuses of patterns, and 
to provide for increasing their durability. The expense of 
inserting iron rapping-plates in wooden patterns is but little ; 
and, were the custom once established, the benefit derived 
would soon be seen. 

Rapping-plates should be placed so as to jar the whole pat- 
tern. This will often necessitate the building-in of more lumber 
than is necessary for making such shells as are often turned out 
and called " patterns." Rapping-plates can be either cast- or 



166 



DRAWING AND MAKING PATTERNS. 



wrought-iron, and made in whatever shape the form of pattern 
may require. For some patterns, the idea given of a cast-iron 
plate, in Fig. 59, will work well. The size shown is that which 
would be suitable for large patterns. For small ones, the size 
could, of course, be decreased. Some pattern-makers go so 
far as to make a practice of inserting draw irons or plates. 
This is an excellent plan. But, if the pattern is one to require 
much rapping, there should also be a rapping-plate. In some 
cases, the draw and rapping holes may both be in one plate. 

For such patterns as small gear-wheels, and others where 
there is no room except for a small plate on the hub, the draw- 



Fig. 61. 



tfoint 





Fig. 62. 



plate should be the one. Then the moulder can both' rap and 
draw the pattern with the same draw-screw. Patterns are as 
likol}' to be destroyed from the lack of draw-plates, as they are 
from the lack of rapping-plates. 

It is sometimes said, if the pattern has a weak spot, the 
moulder is sure to drive his draw-spike or screw there. In 
some cases this may be true. The moulder generally tries to 
insert his spike or screw where it will best balance the pattern : 
therefore, should the weakest spot be there, in there, of course, 
goes the spike. Too many patterns are made without provision 
for drawing them. I have used patterns that, before they could 



DRAWING AND MAKING PATTERNS. 167 

be got oat of the sand, would be — and the mould as well — 
literally torn to pieces. 

I will admit, that sometimes moulders are thoughtless regard- 
ing where they drive draw-spikes, or place screws ; but what 
class of tradesmen would not be, under the same circumstances? 
Our patience is often sorely tried by labor and grief caused by 
the negligence of pattern-makers. Could we cause them as 
much extra labor and trouble as they often cause us, I think 
they would try to accommodate, and study more to assist the 
moulder. 

In small work, the facilities for expeditiously drawing pat- 
terns are much better than for large work. This, in a great 
measure, is due more to the moulder than to the pattern-maker. 
Small-work patterns are generally under the moulder's super- 
vision, because of their being chiefly made of iron or brass. 
All parts are given sufficient taper to insure their drawing well ; 
and, where assistance can be given in steadying the drawing, it 
is generally done. In Figs. 60 and 61, two ways of doing this 
are shown. Fig. 60 shows the common way of using steadying- 
bars ; while Fig. 61 will, to many, present a new idea, which, 
although only adaptable to a narrow range of work, is, never- 
theless, worth notice and thought. The principle was first 
brought to my notice through the kindness of Samuel E. 
Hilles, of S. C. Tatum & Co., Cincinnati, O. As seen at A", 
the runner part is made round. In the plan-view, at SSS, 
are shown the brazed gates, which unite the runner and pattern. 
In drawing the pattern, the end, as seen at H, is simply lifted 
until the whole surface is clear of the mould. The runner K, 
being round, acts as a fulcrum for the pattern to roll upon. 
For such work as sewing-machine legs, etc., this device could 
often be used to advantage. In heavy or large patterns, the 
moulder does not have the facilities for conveniently drawing 
his pattern, the same as in light work, not because it is not 
possible, but because the foundryman, in heavy work, does not 



1C8 DRAWING AND MAKING PATTERN& 

have the management of his pattern-making to so great an 
extent as in light work. 

EE, Fig. 62, shows a simple draw-iron that could and should 
be used to draw up many deep-sided patterns. Once in a while 
it is seen upon a pattern, but often where it should be seen it 
is absent. Numbers of patterns have been pulled apart, 
moulds broken, and moulders enraged, through the lack of a 
few simple draw-irons. Missionaries desirous of suppressing 
evil thoughts and swearing could accomplish much by placard- 
ing pattern-shops with the words "Taper" and "Draw-irons." 

Now, I do not wish to be understood as thinking moulders 
are all perfection. I have seen much " smart Aleck " business 
among moulders, regarding the design of i^aUerns. There are 
many who can show great mouth-wisdom, and find fault with 
details when patterns are completed, which, in reality, are so 
far above their conceptions, that they have not the least idea 
of the difficulties attending, or the thought and skill required 
in making them. One never hears such men approving any 
thing. They open their mouths only to find fault. 

Instead of finding fault with patterns, we often ought to feel 
thankful they are as handy as they are. It is no trifling matter 
for a man to take the general run of drawings, and therefrom 
conceive, and fully plan in his mind to perfection, all the details 
of a pattern. The pattern-maker often does well, when we take 
into consideration what he knows about moulding, and the con- 
ditions under which he does his work. If they would only give 
us "good drawing," and patterns readily "rapped," I would 
never say a word. 



SKIN-DRYING GREEN-SAND MOULDS. 169 



SKIN-DRYING GREEN-SAND MOULDS. 

Skin-drying moulds is a term applied to greeu-sand work, 
where the surface of the mould is blackened over similar to the 
process in dry-sand work, and then surface-dried. 

Skin-drying is generally done for the purpose of giving 
stability to the surface of the mould, and for assisting in the 
peeling of solid castings, as anvil blocks, etc. There are a few 
shops that practise it with lighter work, solely for the purpose 
of giving their green-sand castings a " dry-sand skin." Then, 
again, some shops find it necessary to skin-dry much of their 
work, because of the nature of their sand, which has but little 
body to withstand the heat and wash of metal, or contains too 
much clay. 

In skin-drying moulds, much judgment is required ; for a 
plan that will answer for one mould will seldom do for another. 
Not only have ways and means to be devised for drying, but 
the nature of the sand has to be considered as well. A sand, 
to work well, should, when dried, present a firm porous crust. 
Some sands, on account of their weakness, must be mixed with 
some substance that will give them a body. For such purposes, 
flour, beer, molasses-water, or clay-wash may be used. When 
flour is used, it is mixed in the proportion of one to twenty up 
to one to thirty, according to the quality of the sand. The 
beer, molasses-water, or clay-wash may be used in connection 
with the flour in place of water for wetting the sand ; or the 
flour may be often omitted, and the sand be sufficiently strength- 
ened by aid of the above washes. 

Sometimes sand, because of its closeness, requires some 



170 SKIN-DRYING GREEN-SAND MOULDS. 

sharp sand mixed with it in order to make it work well. While 
some sections possess moulding-sand naturally adapted for skin- 
drying, others do not; and therefore more or less "doctoring" 
will be required to make it work properly. 

In nsing the above mixtures, it must be understood, they are 
used as a facing : all required is to have it face the pattern from 
1" to 2" in thickness. For a backing, the " heap-sand " is used. 

Where copes are skin-dried, they should, as a general thing, 
be well '"gaggered," and sometimes nailed, as the drying of 
their surface forms a crust that may easily drop off unless held 
up by the gagger support. Some moulders practise nailing the 
sides of moulds that are over 6" deep ; and this practice is not 
one to be condemned, as it will often result in obtaining a good 
casting. The gates and sections of the mould where the metal 
first enters are generally the points that should at least be sur- 
face nailed ; for in skin-dried moulds, if the surface once gets 
broken, the under crust soon washes away, fcr it offers but 
little more resistance than so much dry dust would. 

Skin-dried moulds demand that all joints be well finned, for 
the least touch may readily cause a crush. There is no ciass 
of moulds that require more delicacy in handling, for its surface 
is a crust that has but little union with the body of the mould. 
Some moulders will not even trust to the nails for holding the 
portion at the gates : instead, they have cores made the shape 
of the mould, and ram them up with the pattern. This is the 
most reliable plan to adopt to prevent the moulds from cutting 
at the gates when there is a quantity of iron to be run through 
them. The facing for skin-dried moulds is, as a general thing, 
worked or used a little damper than facing would be for com' 
mon green-sand work. After a pattern has been drawn, and 
the mould finished up by using beer or molasses-water for 
swabbing purposes, the next process is that of blackening. 

In Dlackening a mould, two plans may be adopted. One is 
to blacken the mould in a way similar to that used in a dry- 



SKIN-DRYING GREEN-SAND MOULDS. 171 

eand mould : the other is to rub the blackening on dry, and theu 
after sleeking to go over the surface with molasses-wator or 
beer, the molasses-water being the better of the two. Rubbing 
on the blacking is of course only necessary upon the sides, etc, 
of the moulds, where a sufficiently thick amount will not adhere 
if shaken out of a bag. The blacking can be put on with 
camel's-hair brushes. The two plans of blackening may often 
be advantageously used upon the same mould. The plan of 
rubing the blacking on dry, and going over it with the molasses- 
water or beer, does not dampen a mould's surface as much as 
blackening the mould with all wet blacking, similar to the 
blackening of a dry-sand mould. The reason why these two 
plans of blackening will sometimes work together is because, 
in drying the mould b}' pan or sheet plates, etc., there are some 
parts which will naturally receive more heat than others : by 
using judgment in dampening the facing, in connection with the 
adoption of the modes of blackening, all parts of the moulds 
are more apt to become dry at about the same time ; while, if 
the fire acts much upon some one part after all others are dry, 
there i.s danger of some places becoming burnt, which is avoided 
if all the parts become dry at about the same time. 
' After a mould has been blackened after the plan of a dry- 
sand mould, some make a practice of sleeking them. This is 
not the safest plan to adopt in every case. By sleeking the 
wet blacking, a smoother casting may be produced ; but unless 
very carefully done, there is more or less danger of the sleeking 
causing scabs. If blacking is used thin enough to not clabber, 
and the coats are put on with fine camel's-hair brushes so as to 
show no streaks, castings will result about as smooth as if the 
moulds were sleeked, and the danger of scabs caused by sleek- 
ing is avoided. 

In skin-drying moulds, methods must be adopted best suit- 
ing the work in hand. For instance, some moulds, such as 
anvil blocks, etc., may be dried by setting in them a square 



172 SKIN-DRYING GREEN-SAND MOULDS. 

or round kettle ; then, again, some moulds may be dried by 
means of flat, oblong, or square pans. Often there are moulds 
where neither of the two plans will answer, because they are 
so shaped that the kettles or pans cannot be well used. Thin 
sheet-iron plates perforated with small holes are often used by 
laying them over the mould. This plan is, as a general thing, 
seldom used when kettles or pans can be utilized. 

The fuel generally used for drying is charcoal. In firing 
with it, the heat thrown off should be mild and steady, espe- 
cially upon the start, since too strong a fire is apt to blister or 
burn the mould. Sometimes the cope and nowel may be dried 
together, by having the cope propped up clear of the nowel. 
and the fire between them. Then, again, the mould may be 
such as to admit of its being closed while being dried, the riser, 
etc., being left open to let out the steam. Green-sand cores 
are most advantageously skin-dried ' by placing them in an 
oven ; and, as in drying the moulds, the heat should be kept 
mild and unifoi-m. 

To ascertain if a mould or core is dried deep enough, either 
cut a small hole into the surface with some sharp tool, or press 
the surface with the fingers. The hardest places to dry by pans, 
etc., are the corners. The sides of some moulds might be 
burnt to pieces before the corners could be dried. To get the 
corners dry, it is often necessary, after pan fires have been 
taken out, to place some hot coals around or in the corners, or 
to dry them with hot irons.' 

Before a novice undertakes a difficult job, he should have 
practised upon minor jobs, which, if s^ioiled^ entail but small 
loss. Experience, coupled with judgment, is necessary, to be 
successful in drying moulds so as to turn out good castings. 

> Advance in founding has led up to natural and artificial gas as well as hot air 
being used for drying moulds. 



SETTIlfG AND CENTRING CORES. 178 



SETTING AND CENTRING CORES. 

If there is any one thing that a machinist dislikes, it is bor« 
ing out holes that are not cored centrally. And why a moulder 
cannot always set cores centrally, is something of a conundrum 
to him. Moulders can sometimes make excuses, and are gen- 
erally ready to take a cast-iron oath that the core was set right, 
which the machinist, of course, cannot dispute. Still it will, I 
believe, be acknowledged by nearly all moulders, that excuses 
for cores out of centre are about the worst kind of excuses we 
have to make. When you get a moulder so that he cannot say 
any thing, it is a sin to torment him further ; but it isn't often 
that you will get liim there. 

Why it is that all cores cannot be set centrally, is something 
that cannot be fully explained. To set a core centrally or 
straight, does not generally call for any great mechanical skill. 
What is more demanded is care and thought. 

The ai'companying engraving may assist in showing why 
some holes do not come central, and perhaps afford some help 
in setting cores. 

The cause of holes being out of the centre is not always on 
account of the cores not having been set centrally. There are 
many things, such as uneven closing of flasks, bad-fitting flasks, 
ill-fitting cores, etc., any of which may result in crooked holes. 
Some readers ^f ' ' The American Machinist ' ' will remember 
a^xout four years back discussions upon core prints.' To my 
Aiind, the elaborate sj'stems that some writers advocated had 
but little to do with what prints are practically used for. Prints 
are for no other purpose than giving bearings and holding 
cores. 



' This refers back to the year 1882. 



174 



SETTING AND CENTRING CORES. 




Jiottom Venting 
Fig. 63. 

And whether bottom core prints are tapering, as seen in 



SETTING AND CENTRING CORES. 175 

"Third core," or straight as shown in all the others, has but 
little to do with the holes being out of the centre, which I think 
is a vital part of the question. The top prints are the essential 
ones, and even they often have but very little to do with poor 
holes. As a general thing, long top taper prints afford a 
l)etter chance for the cores to accommodate themselves to their 
centre. For long cores, where there is uncertainty about meas- 
uring, such prints as are shown with " First core " are reason- 
ably certain of providing for a true hole. This form of a print 
is the most reliable one that can be used, as with it the moulder 
can see whether the core is in its right place or not. In fact, 
by the use of such a print, it would be a hard matter to get the 
core out of its centre. Some may think that such prints should 
always be used ; but they are objectionable from the extra 
labor and time which their use involves. It may be said that 
there is no gain, if, through the quicker plan, the casting is 
lost. But all castings are not lost : it is only the ones that are 
wanted in a hurry, that we generall}* lose. 

The cause of many crooked holes where the popular common 
top-tapering print is used, is as illustrated at "Third core." 
As a general thing, nearly all pulleys, gearwheels, etc.; have 
either feeders or pouring-gates on the hub. These holes break 
away, or weaken a portion of what should be a firm, true, sound, 
tapering print ; and the core leans to the weak side, with the 
result shown. 

There are a few moulders who always close such moulds as 
the above, with the gates in place, as shown at "Second core." 
By this plan it is evident that much of the risk is lessened. 

The gaggering and nailing around the second core is another 
safeguard against the core crowding the print to oue side. 
Another point that will bear looking at is that of the taper 
ends of cores. A large number of foundries make all their 
common sizes of round cores, without having the taper end 
formed. Then, aoain. a large number of shops make their 
cores having the taj)cr end on them. 



X76 SETTING AND CENTRING CORES. 

Filing a taper on cores is often ver}' objectionable, espe- 
cially when done by a careless moulder. A fair illustration of 
careless work of this kind is shown on core B. If a central 
hole is got with such a core, it can't be charged to good inanage- 
ment. 

A careful moulder, when filing a taper print, will compare 
his print and core together, as seen at i^, thereby making a 
core that is likely to fit and fill the female print S. 

Cores made with taper prints are often one-sided from being 
laid down upon plates to dry ; although some, by nailing the 
heads, or packing sand under to hold them up, will get a very 
fair tapered head. 

In some shops, in order to get good round straight cores, 
thej^ are dried in half-round iron boxes of the same diameter 
as the cores. This is the only reliable way of making true 
taper-end round straight cores. The plan is an old one, and 
the cause of its unpopularity is the expense ,of making the 
cast-iron boxes. 

At E^ D, H, and at the square, are shown the methods 
generally emplo3'ed in setting and centring cores. With the 
exception of E, the plans are popular, and call for no comment. 
^ is a plan whereby cores in such moulds as green-sand pro- 
peller-wheels, and others having no points to measure from 
satisfactorily, can be centred. The plan is simply the driving 
of three or four stakes outside or away from the mould, before 
the pattern is drawn ; the stick E being placed against the 
pattern print, and all the stakes driven the length of the stick 
away from the print. The core, when set by the same stick, 
will of course occupy the same position in the mould as the 
print occupied on the pattern, and therefore, as far as centring 
is concerned, must be right. The plan is applicable in other 
ways than shown ; and, while the idea may be old to some, it 
will be new to many. 

The ,jarrying-off of such core-vents through the cope la 



SETTING AND CENTRING CORES. 177 

often the cause of weakening top-prints, and also the cause 
of blow-ups, from metal getting into the vent. To avoid this 
danger, it is often the better plan to carr}' off the vent through 
the bottom board, or by running a long vent down into the 
moulding-floor, as in the case of bedded-in moulds. 

Some will say, That is all right, providing you have a cinder- 
bed under the mould. I have carried off the vent of cores as 
large as one foot in diameter, and more in length, by simply 
driving a ^" vent rod down three or four feet in the sand below 
the mould. Green sand, where you have a large body, is capa- 
ble of carrying off and holding more gas than is generally 
thought ; and to such as have never tried this plan, I would 
say : " Do so," for I know they will find it an easy and good 
way of carrying off ordinary-sized vertically set core-vents. If 
the cores are small in diameter, and long, — for instance, say 
2" diameter by 24" long, — it would then be best to take the 
vent up through the cope in concert with what would pass 
downwards. Verj' long, small-diameter cores cannot be too 
well connected with outlet vents, as the vents from such, espe- 
cially if quickly surrounded with metal, require to have a fast 
delivery. 

In the upper part of the cut are represented ideas that to 
some may be of value. It represents the finning or chamfer- 
ing of core-prints, in order to prevent the crushing of flanges, 
etc. At P and V there is not the chamfer which is seen at A 
and R. Many moulders seldom think of chamfering a print, 
and to the credit of such may be placed many bad castings. 
Chamfering core-prints should be performed upon the same 
principles as finning joints ; and whenever the print is short, or 
the core too heavy, there should be bearings to assist the 
prints, or chaplets, in holding the core, placed as represented 
at TT. 

The greatest cause of flange-crushing is probabl}' due to the 
irregularity and over-size of cores. Should any of my mould- 



178 SETTING AND CENTRING CORES. 

ers lose a casting through the above cause, I should hold them 
responsible, although I might reprimand the core-maker for 
making the core too large. In our shop it is the custom for 
all pipes or moulds having- flanges upon them to be tried off 
and on in concert with caliperiug the print and core. This 
gives the moulder a chance to see if there is any liability of 
his mould or flanges being crushed ; and, if there is, he has 
time to then remedy any evils that might result in a bad cast- 
ing. The practice of thus trying off and on all such moulds 
has been the means of sa\ing many a casting fi'om going to 
the scrap-pile. I think it is a safe assertion to make, that in 
not one of fifty shops is this the rule. I know that it takes 
more time ; but will say that in our shop I have yet to see a 
casting lost through having a crushed flange, — a thing that 
but few foundrymen can say. 

Having all castings good, far more than balances, in dollars 
and cents, the little extra time taken up in trying off and on 
all such copes. 



IMPROPER SETTING AND WEDGING OF CHAPLETS. 170 



IMPROPER SETTING AND WEDGING OF 
CHAPLETS. 

It is not uncommon to see castings lost from improper 
setting or wedging of chaplets. The work lost may be light or 
heavy. The little error that will cause the loss of a casting 
worth one dollar would cause the loss of one worth hundreds of 
dollars. In selecting this subject, there was no thought of pre- 
senting improved plans or ideas ; but, if possible, to show how 
castings may be and are lost through want of care or judgment^ 
— not practice, for moulders that have worked a lifetime at the 
trade can be found who are no more expert in this respect 
than apprentices. 

The mould chosen to illustrate this subject is a large piston. 
The number of cores in it is eight ; for each core there are three 
cope chaplets required ; so that, altogether, we have twenty- 
four chaplets to be set and wedged ; and, should any one of 
this number be wrong, the result would be a bad casting. 

Often there are moulds where the vent of some core can only 
be taken off through the bottom of the mould ; and the core 
may be of such a fonn as to have only a small bearing on the 
sand and the rest on chaplets. This core may be the only one 
in a mould, to lose which would involve hundreds of dollars. 
When setting this core, the moulder is very careful that the 
vent portion has a solid air-tight joint ; for, if the liquid iron 
should find its way between the joint of the core and mould, all 
would be lost. After the core has been carefully set, the next 
important thing to be done, to insure safety, is, after the cope 
is on, to wedge down the chaplets, so that the head of iron 



f80 IMPROPER SETTING AND WEDGING OF CHAPLETS. 

cannot raise up the core, and allow the metal to get into the 
vent. At B, on the right-hand side of the cut, is an illustra- 







*ii^::V^:^si*^ 



tion of how a great many cores are dangerously wedged down. 
As this chaplet is shown, with its wedge and blocking, there 



IMPROPER SETTING AND WEDGING OF CHAPLETS. l8l 

arc three things that could happen which would allow the core 
to rise up so that the iron could get into a bottom vent, as 
shown at D. It may be well to remark here, that, whenever it 
is possible, vents in cores, similar to the one shown, should be 
arranged to be let off through the cope, as shown on the oppo-> 
site side at H. There is always more or less danger in taking 
off the vent through the bottom. These remarks are intended 
more particularly for the draughtsman and pattern-maker, who 
should always remember that in moulding there is generally 
more or less risk, and that they can very often greatly lessen 
this risk by having a little thought for the moulder's interests, 
as well as for their own. 

Going back to the subject : Suppose the mould shown is 
being poured ; the liquid metal is rushing through the runner 
or gate A^ and the head soon becomes high enough to exert a 
pressure up and against the chaplets. Now look at chaplet -B, 
and then at chaplet K. It will require but little observation to 
decide which one is liable to let the core rise sufficiently for the 
iron to run into the vent D. (The chaplet TT, between B and 
7\", would not in actual practice be used. It is only shown 
there for the purpose of illustrating the ideas.) Now, the 
chaplet B is by no means an exaggerated illustration, but a true 
sketch, representing the way a great many chaplets are secured, 
sometimes on jobs upon which a great deal of money and labor 
have been expended. The first noticeable weak point is at 2. 
Here we have only one point touching or resting on the core. 
This chaplet-head may be stiff enough to stand as it now is, 
but its chances are very slim indeed : if it does bend when the 
liquid iron makes it hot, up comes the core sufficientl}' to let the 
iron into the vent. Again, suppose the head will not bend : it 
is plain to see, that, in the way the wedge is placed in relation 
to the head which rests on the core, it would iM)t require a 
very great strain to tip up the rail, so as to become loose with 
the wedge 3, thereby letting the core rise up. There is still 



182 tMPROPEll SETTING AND WEDGING OF CHAPLETS. 

another possibility of this core rising up. We will suppose 
that neither of the above results should occur, and that the 
chaplet will stay in the position shown. Over the top of this 
chaplet and wedge is a railroad-bar. This bar is held down by 
having a wedge, 4, placed between it and the cast-iron beam X. 
Now, the way this chaplet is placed to the outer edge has been 
known to allow a rail, or similar bar, to partially roll over. 
Another feature frequently seen in wedging down the bars of a 
cope as well as chaplets is, that, instead of putting about an 
equal number of wedges on each side of a bar, they will all be 
placed on one side, and that most likely the weakest side, as 
at 4. 

At S and T may be seen some very fair illustrations of the 
way many unaccountable bad results are accomplished. 

A chaplet wedged, as shown at S, will often cause bad 
results. When a heavy pressure comes upon a chaplet thus 
wedged with cast-iron wedges (which are generally used), they 
will frequently break, on account of the two faces of the 
wedges not coming well together, as is shown, and thus allow 
the core to rise up and make the casting thinner than it should 
be, or allow the iron to run into bottom vents (should there be 
any), and cause a blow-up. 

The chaplet K is wedged in a way to be relied upon. After 
placing the wedges by hand, they need to be tightened. For 
this purpose a hammer should seldom be used. The hammer- 
ing to tighten them should be done by some lighter article than 
the common run of shop hammers. I once had some words 
with a moulder about losing a casting through bad chapleting. 
He was certain he had tightened his chaplets, and went so far 
as to call upon his helper to testify to his using his hammer. 
There is no question but what he did tighten his chaplets, and 
the sketch of the hammer seen no doubt shows how he used it. 

Some moulders will say the ' ' blocking ' ' and chaplets cannot 
always be arranged so as to use two wedges. It is admitted 



IMPRorEli SETTING AND WEDGING OF CHAPLETS. 183 

that there are often such cases ; but, as a general thing, there 
is just about as much mechanical skill, or the lack of it, shown 
in placing the upper blocking, as there is in the general hand- 
ling of chaplets and wedges. Some moulders are just as liable 
to place blocking bars six inches above the chaplets as they art 
to have the bars clear only a quarter of an inch. The first 
blocks the}' can lay their hands on will be used to rest the bars 
on, instead of making a point to study the proper relation for 
careful wedging. About the proper distance to allow for 
wedging space between bars and chaplets is f". 

The less blocking and feioer pieces that are used betiveen bars 
and ivedges, the better it is for the wedging and for the safety 
of a casting. At W is shown a chaplet wedged in a reliable 
manner where the use of blocks is required. 

Careless moulders often lose castings by the way in which 
they set bottom chaplets. R and 31 show wooden blocks, hav- 
ing sharp-pointed chaplets driven in them. The block R is apt 
to split, caused by using too long a chaplet. The block 3f 
shows the other extreme. Both of these blocks are liable to 
cause a bad casting through settling of the cores. Often, in 
setting a heavy core upon such chaplets, the weight will force 
the sharp points deeper into the blocks, thereby causing the 
core to settle and make the casting too thin. Perhaps, if the 
core's own weight don't do it, the wedging-down of the chap- 
lets will. 

When wooden blocks are used, they are better if made of 
hard wood set with the grain up ; and the moulder will have to 
use his judgment as regards the proper distance to drive in a 
point, as the size of the chaplet, the weight of core, and nature 
of the block must be considered. As a general rule, ^" is a 
good distance. 

The two inner bottom chaplets shown are placed in cast-iron 
stands. The chaplet on the right is reliably set. The one on 
the left illustrates why cores are sometimes broken, or the 
casting " comes thin," by not huviug a solid bearing. 



184 IMPROPER SETTING AND WEDGING OF CHAPLETS. 

The wedges shown, having dimensions given, are of good 
proportions for cast-iron wedges for general foundry use. 
Many shops use wrought-iron wedges. Altogether, they are 
decidedly the best ; but, on account of their cost, the cast-iron 
wedge is used in the majority of shops. It would be better to 
keep a few wrouglit wedges, as there are often jobs where the 
cast wedges are not safe. 

More solid wedging can be done by the size shown than by 
thicker ones. In wedging iron and iron, there is a tendency to 
slip ; and the more tapering the wedge is, the more liable it is 
to slip. When securing a cope, or a number of chaplets, with 
iron wedges, they should generally be gone over two or three 
times ; the tightening of one wedge will often loosen others, 
making it necessary to go over them all once or twice after the 
first wedging, each time rapping lighter. 

The cut shown of a chaplet-stem represents one got up by an 
acquaintance, A. M. McGee, who is employed in a bolt- works, 
Cleveland, O. He has devised a machine for putting on the 
heads, and also claims originating the stem shown. Be that as 
it may, the plan is a good one. 

For slanting cores, similar to those shown in the piston, 
chaplets with forged heads are not the best, on account of 
there being no chance for the head to adapt itself to the shape 
of the core. With a stem having a shoulder and riveting-tip 
like the one shown, as large a plate head as desired can be 
readily riveted on in such a manner as to be loose or tight. 
C listings are often lost on account of chaplet stems not having 
sufficient shoulders on to hold down the riveted head when the 
pressure comes upon them. The advantage of having such a 
shoulder as shown is apparent. 

There are often cores used that require the chaplet heads to 
be bent, to correspond with their irregular surfaces or slanting 
faces. Such cores call for extra-careful work in placing and 
holding the chaplets. In some cases it is best, if coi-ditiou 



IMPROPER SETTING AND WEDGING OF CHAPLETS. l85 

will allow, to file awny a iiortion of the core, so that straight- 
headed chaplets can l»e used, or when making the cores provide 
for this. In some foundries, round-column cores, etc., are 
often made flat where tlie chaplets are to rest, so as to allow 
the use of flat-headed chaplets, and give the chaplets a solid 
bearing. 

The triangle shown illustrates a plan that can often be 
adopted when a core has three chaplets in order to make the 
securing of chaplets more eas}' and reliable ; by the use of this, 
the chaplets are sure to have a good bearing, and also are not 
jarred by the use of wedges. To show the manner of thus 
securing a cope and its chaplets, suppose that we are going to 
get ready such a mould as shown. 

After all the cores are set, and clay balls placed where the 
chaplets are wanted, the cope is lowered down to receive the 
impression of the balls. The cope is now hoisted up, and 
the chaplet holes in the cope made ; being sure that the holes 
are all reamed out at the face of the mould, as shown at K. 
Castings are often lost through neglect of this. TFand B are 
illustrations of how such losses can occur. In W, the chaplet 
is all incased firmly in the sand. In J3, the hole is ill-made 
at the stem-end of the chaplet ; and the one is nearly as 
dangerous as the other, as the chances are ten to one that 
the sand around the chaplets will be found dropped when the 
casting comes out. This may be caused either by having to 
push down the chaplet so as to rest on the core, or by the jarring 
of the chaplet when being wedged. When the chaplets are all 
placed in the cope as they should be, by having the hole " just 
easy" enough to permit the stem to work up and down in, 
and also made larger at the face of the mould, so that there 
can be no danger of breaking down the face, the cope is then 
ready to be closed. For uneven or slanting core surfaces, as 
here shown, it is a good plan to place a little flour on the cores 
where the chaplets are to come, which is known by the clay 



18G IMPROPER SETTING AND WEDGING OF CHAPLETS. 

marks ; then when the cope is lowered down, and all of the 
chaplets rapped down solid, the cope is again hoisted, when, 
by the impressions upon the flour, it can be known whether all 
of the chaplets have a solid bearing. If all are now found to 
be right, the cope is lowered down to stay. 

In the piston mould shown, there are eight cores ; and to hold 
down each core, there are three chaplets used. The top ones 
are made of ^" iron, and the bottom ones of f" iron. The 
heads on all the chaplets are 2" square. The thickness of the 
metal in the casting is about one inch. There being eight 
cores, there are also eight triangle plates. These plates are 
now set, one upon every three chaplets. The round dots rep- 
resent where they rest upon the chaplets. 

After these triangles are all placed, there are then two plate 
rings placed over them, as seen at Y and F ; these rings 
being kept up high enough to admit of a wedge being placed 
between them and the triangle plates. Over the top of these 
two rings are now placed four railroad-bars, they also being 
kept high enough to admit of wedging. Set at right angles to 
and on top of these four bars are placed two heavy cast-iron 
beams, as shown at X. The rings, rail bars, and cast beams 
are all held up by blocking on the outer edges of the cope, 
similar to that as shown at JJ. The inner and outer rings Y 
and F are connected by three arms, which also extend from 
the outer ring to reach the outside of the cope. These rings, 
being made purposely for this job, were made in one casting. 
On top of the beams are placed all the w eiglits needed to hold 
down the cope, if there is no chance to bolt it down. After 
the weights are all on, then carefully wedge the rails, rings, 
and triangle plates. It is not intended that this article should 
cover all the ways that castings may be lost through improper 
wedging or setting of chaplets. The field for blunders in this 
line is too broad to attempt any such task. 



KULES FOR WEIGHTING COFES AND COHES. 187 



MOMENTUM AND RULES FOR WEIGHTING 
COPES AND CORES. 

In the article ou weighting clown copes (vol. i. p. 113), I 
wrote that it was absurd, to my view, for one to say he can 
figure the exact weight required to hold down a cope. I think 
the following examples will fully prove that there is a momen- 
tum, and that it is absurd for one to say he can figure the exact 
weight that is just sufficient to hold down all copes. To say 
the " statical head " is all the pressure copes are subjected to, 
is to maintain that there is no momentum, and no difference 
in moulds or forms of gates in producing a pressure. 

Some argue that there are no conditions to be considered in 
the weighting-down of copes ; that it is simply a question of 
hydrostatics. To prove that there are other conditions to be 
considered, and also that the momentum of the iron at the 
moment many moulds become full has an influence, I would 
simply ask any one to take a pattern 123^' square by about 1^" 
thick, common rule measurement, and make four moulds, two 
of them to be poured as shown at K, and two as shown at H, 
Fig. 65. Any one will admit that these modes of pouring 
cover the common manner of making pouring-runners, as first 
receivers of the iron, as it is poured out of the ladle. 

The mould K, if brought up quickly, would require more 
weight to hold it down than it would were it brought up quickly 
and poured as shown at H. Either one of them, if brought up 
easily, can be held down by having the cope and the weights 
weigh two hundred and thirty pounds ; but they cannot be 
brought up as fast as possible, and be held down by that 



188 



RULES FOR WEIGHTING COFES AND CORES. 



weight. Further, I will allow the use of thirty-five pounds 
more weight on K than the head calls for ; and even then the 








cope will lift if the metal is brought up fast. Both of these 
moulds have the full benefit of a riser. Should each be poured 




.r„p, 




Uasin 



Itiser 



f\ -m 



i 



^^r^*"'Bar^~^"gt^'"w 







■■Cope.'. 



12,'.x 13,', 



^^^'^^^^^^^^'^^''^^^i^ 





I ; • ■. ■: ■ : : .' .•.• Cope. • {V; IV';'; •"■'• I | ; \-^:-'-':^:: Cope] 
3"- .','■;. . ; .-.' .:.*■■.■.•■/. •'."'.'.•' ■'• ^zi f^ ■ •■- '.'.'.■. -■•■•■■■•'■ 



Vx 18 
.1 F 



-^^^^ 



WW 

1]^ 



IS X 4S" T 

J 

7 



Ihig. 68. 



Fig. 69. 



/gV 



M 



SHqqZ 



H r 



Fig. 70. 



Fig. 71. \0^ 



Different Styles of Gating Motilda. 



RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 180 

fast without a riser, there will be an increased momentum, and 
more weight will l)e required to hold them down. Fifty pounds 
extra, added to the weight the statical head calls for, would 
not hold down K if brought up fast. These moulds, compara- 
tively, present but a very small lifting area to that which some 
others do. Therefore, if such small lifting areas will give the 
momentum shown, what must we not expect in large lifting 
areas? 

As supplementary to the two above examples, the engrav- 
ings. Figs. 66-71, are given opposite, in which is further 
illustrated how figuring for cope weights is but an approxima- 
tion, and that for practical safe working one cannot figure the 
exact weight required. 

The forms of gates here shown are those also commonly 
used. In Fig. 67 we have the pouring-gate higher than the 
riser. The result is, that neither the height of the pouring-basin 
nor the riser can be figured from to obtain a weight which 
would be the nearest to the cope's lifting capacity. The mould 
in Fig. 67 is supposed to have 144 square inches of lifting-sur- 
face, and, as shown, has a basin or pouring-head 12" above the 
lifting or cope's surface. This mould, were the cope's lifting 
pressure theoretically figured for the 12" head, would require a 
weight, including cope, of 450 pounds. With the style of 
pouring-l)asin and gate shown, and having a riser 6" lower 
than the pouring-basin, however quickly, at the last, the gates 
or heads were "brought up," the 450 pounds could not be 
raised. On the other hand, were one to figure for the weight, 
taking the height of the riser for the lifting or statical head, 
he would require half of 450 pounds, as the riser's height is 6", 
or half of 12" ; therefore, to weight for a 6" head, we should, 
theoretically figured, require a weight, including cope, of 225 
pounds. "With such a weight, even being "brought up slow," 
the cope would lift. The mean of these two weights — 337^ 
pounds — is about as near as one could theoretically figure for 



190 RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES 

a safe weight. By pouring so as to bring ap the pressure 
slowly, a weight of 250 pounds would hold the lift of the 6" 
head. In all these experiments, after the basins and riser were 
formed, the copes were weighed, and weights added until the 
copes and all weighed as per figures given. When one has a 
plain surface, it is simple enough to figure the head pressure ; 
but, when one comes to apply hydrostatics to every thing that 
comes along, it is different. It may, in some jobs, be safe 
enough to take the mean of riser and pouring-basin as the 
lifting-head, or height to figure from. But, unless there is over 
six inches difference between the height of riser and pouring- 
heads, I would not advise, in any of the styles of gates shown, 
to figure the pressure from the mean of the head's heights. 
He that will make it a practice to figure from the highest point 
of the pouring-basin as the lifting-head, and then allow extra 
weight in proportion as the style of mould and gates are pro- 
ductive of momentum, will work the most securely. If it 
were always practicable to pour with very hot iron, and have 
enough area of riser to carry off the metal as fast as it could be 
poured into the mould, and also were one always sure of having 
as hot iron as he made calculations for, the height of risers or 
flow-off gates would then, as a general thing, not allow any 
head pressure much higher than its own to exist. 

The duller the iron is, the more apt, in moulds having risers, 
is the statical pressure to approach that of the pouring-basin's 
height. Often the metal will freeze at the risers' entrance, and 
then, again, it will come up the risers so sluggishly as to retard 
the flow. While the statical head's pressure may be that of 
the basin's height, it does not always follow that the mould is 
being strained the full height of the pouring-head ; for in some 
cases, if the metal is dull enough to freeze in the risers, its 
dulness is very apt to exert less lifting pressure upon the lift- 
ing surfaces of the mould. The thinner the metal in lifting 
portions, the less lift is dull iron liable to exert. Where pro- 



RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 191 

portions are tliick, then should the risers, through any cause, 
••flow sluggish," or '-freeze up," we are more sure a lifting 
pressure, the full height of the pouring-basin's head, is being 
exerted. 

There are man}' moulds, that, were they poured direct, similar 
to that shown at /I'and in Fig. 66, even were the risers lower 
than the pouring-gate, would not have their copes held down 
by the weight obtained from the pouring-gate's height of head. 
Such styles of direct-poured moulds are productive of more 
momentum than any style of gated moulds generally made. 
The amount of weight required over and above wliat the pour- 
ing-head calls for, to hold down the momentum force, depends 
upon how many ladles are used, how fast the mould is poured, 
the square inches of area that the metal will suddenly rise up 
against, and the distance of risers below pouring-basins. It 
might also be added, that these three momentum factors, to an 
extent, eularge in ratio as the height of head increases above 
the lifting surface. 

A class of moulds that generally will admit of the closest 
figuring, or that have the least momentum lifting pressure upon 
them, are those similar to the one shown in Fig. 68. Here we 
have the metal entering the mould, as represented l)y tlic arrow 
at N. Moulds thus poured or run from the bottom take the 
metal the fastest upon the start, and the rapidity of filling 
gradually diminishes till the end, thereby greatly lessening the 
force of momentum or strain upon the mould. 

If it were practicable to pour like moulds, having the same 
sectional area of gates and heads of like height, some to be run 
uudemeath, similar to Fig. 68 ; the others to have joint gates, 
as at Fig. 69 ; the pouring-basins to be large enough in both 
cases to admit of keeping them and the gates full, — the joint 
gated moulds could be filled up the fastest, and would require 
the most weight to hold the copes. The reason I would assigu 
for this is that the joint gates admit of the greatest velocity in 
flow. 



192 



RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 



Metal will more readily flow into air-space than into a body 
of metal. The higher the heads, and the nearer a level the 
metal in basin and mould approach each other, the more ap- 
parent this becomes. In pouring high, vertically cast moulds 
entirely from the bottom, we can often see the top portion flU 
up so slowly as to cause fears of its not running. Some might 
here say, the reason for the mould's filling so much slower at 
the last was simply caused by there being less head pressure at 
the end than at the beginning. While this, of course, is cor- 




Illustrationof Head Weight 
in, Jtestrictiny a Flow 

Fig. 72. 

rect, there are two other factors which help to retard the flow. 
One is the decreased fluidity of the metal, the other its weight. 
As an example to illustrate how the metal's weight will retard 
its flowing, the annexed cut is given. The example is simple, 
and the experiment readily tried. As seen, the metal's highest 
head is at Y, and it escapes through the outlet W. By pour- 
ing a steady stream into the basin (which, by the way, is far 
enough from the upright Y to prevent any eflfeet such as direct 
pouring into would cause in adding to bead force), and keeping 
it full, we will, with a head of 12", as seen, throw up a stream 
about 8" high. Now, were it not for the resistance of the air, 



RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 19S 

friction of flow through the gate, and the weight of metal en- 
deavoring to descend, the head F would throw the stream as 
high as itself. 

In about the same ratio as here seen, does this element retard 
the head's influence in rapidly filling bottom-poured moulds. 
After the metal has risen to that height in a mould to which 
the mould's gate or runner head could throw a stream into 
air-space when first started, then the further fiUing-up of the 
mould is more due to that non-momentum element in equilib- 
rium of liquids that is exercised in low heads settling to a dead 
level. The decreased fluidity of metal mentioned has also 
much to do in preventing heads suddenly finding their level, 
and causing momentum. The duller iron is, the more cohesive 
it is. It can become so cohesive in a mould, while being poured, 
as to entirely stop the flow before the mould is filled. 

As it is true these elements in a greater or lesser degree 
decrease momentum, it cannot but be seen, that with pouring- 
basins, and underneath gates similar to that seen attached to 
Fig. 68, the force of momentum would be greatly decreased. 
In fact, when it is practicable to use such underneath gates 
combined with pouring-basins, copes will, as a general thing, 
have but little momentum force exerted upward against them ; 
and if the weight obtained from figuring the gate's statical head 
and mould's lifting area (allowing a cubic inch of iron to weigh 
.26 of a pound) be placed upon anj^ ordinary weight of cope, 
there will be no danger of its lifting, even were there no risers 
to indicate when the mould was full. 

A point which it may be well to draw further attention to 
here is the effect of directly pouring into runners, instead of 
first having the metal enter a basin from which it then flows to 
the runner, as seen at H, Fig. 65, also Figs. 68 and 69. The 
only difference between these pourers and those of K, Fig. 65, 
also Figs. 66 and 70, is. one has basins, and the other has none 
except the end of th.; ruunerj as at J?, is enlarged. Pouring 



194 RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND COKES. 

direct into runner-gates, to an extent, often gives the momen- 
tum head-pressure equal to almost what it would figure taking 
S, Fig. 70, the lip of the ladle, for the height of the head. The 
momentum that such pouring causes on forced fast-poured 
vioulds, such as flat plates, etc., where the metal suddenly fills 
up to a large lifting surface or area, may be such as to call for 
over one-half the weight more than the height of the statical 
head would figure, in order to overcome the momentum, and 
safely hold down the cope. 

Gates of the style shown at Figs. 69 and 71 are generally 
termed " joint gates." Moulds poured with such gates are 
generally subjected to much momentum ; and whether their 
basins are such as in Fig. 68, or in Fig. 70, to a verj- large de- 
gree determines their momentum lifting force. Spraj'-gates, as 
seen in plan Fig. 71, it must be remembered, have a lifting force 
the same as though they formed a part of the lifting area of 
the mould ; and, when figuring such a mould's lifting area, 
t'nat of the spray-gates should be added to it. 

The term momentum here used, the reader is to understand, 
I apply to any pressure over or above the mould's final statical 
pressure, which may be created during the second of time that 
any head over or above the cope's lifting surface is being filled ; 
also, the height of pouring-basins above any flow-off risers or 
gates, I consider as factors of momentum. For in strictly 
practical working, a second or so after the pouring ceases, the 
height of the lowest flow-off riser is that which should become 
the statical head, as long as the metal in the gates remains in 
a fluid state. 

Before closing the momentum question, there is another point 
which it might be well to call up, which is this : We must re- 
member, that, in a degree, whatever pressure we subject the 
cope's surface to, the same is transmitted to all parts of the 
mould. Of course, by this it is not meant that the sides and 
bottom of the mould receive no more pressure than the cop^j's 



RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 105 

surface does. In addition to the cope's surface pressure, the 
bottom and sides of the mould have to support the dead weight 
of metal in the mould. To find the pressure upon the side or 
bottom of a mould : For the bottom, multiply the area covered, 
by the vertical height to the top of poiiring gates or basin; for 
side pressure, multiply the height of the sides measured from the 
top of .the gates to the centre of gravity of the casting: either 
when found, and multiplied by .26 (the weight of a cubic inch 
of iron) , will give the pressure in pounds. Taking the momen- 
tum head pressure in concert with the metal's weight in the 
mould, it is surprising, the amount of pressure the bottom of 
some moulds have to support. 

As I think I have proved that momentum enters into the 
question of pouring moulds, I am now ready to present rules 
which will, in connection with the above, no doubt, provide a 
simple and intelligent solution of weighting copes by mathe- 
matical calculation. Were there no conditions to be considered,' 
and were all moulds filled without any sudden pressure upon 
the copes, then it might be true, as one of my critics said 
("American Machinist," Aug. 19, 1882): "The science of 
hydraulics, demonstrated by experience, proves that, given 
height and surface, and application of multiplication, the result 
will be, not an approximation, but certainty itself." 

In figuring the head pressure for water, etc., experience has 
no doubt demonstrated there is a certainty or exactness to be 
obtained by mathematical calculations. When one comes to 
apply the science of hydraulics, or properly hydrostatics, to 
foundry practice, my experience would make it read, not a 
certaintj', but an approximation. While the following rules are 
given for figuring up the pressures upon copes, the}' can at 
their best, when practically applied, be but an approximation ; 
and in many cases much more weight than the actual statical 
head figures up will be required. The momentary pressure 
almost all copes receive is caused by the sudden attaining of a 



196 RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 

head, or, commonly speaking, the fiUing-up of the gates when 
the mould is full. Did the gates or risers (wheu a mould was 
full) fill up as gradually as the mould, then there would be no 
momentum. As a general thing, it takes from five up to over 
one hundred seconds to fill the common run of moulds with 
metal, whereas the gates through Avhich they are poured will 
generally fill up in about one second, thereby obtaining a head- 
pressure in one moment which it often takes the mould in filling 
over one hundred seconds to create. The higher the top of 
pouring-gates above the mould's lifting surface, the greater 
the increased lifting force of momentum ; and as has been fully 
shown, the various forms of pouring-gates will require different 
amounts of weight in pouring moulds having exactly the same 
lifting area, and same height of heads or gates. 

There are various formulas for mathematically calculating 
the theoretical weight requii'ed to hold down copes. Mr, TuUis, 
in the "American Machinist" of Aug. 19, 1882, gave the 
following concise rule: "Specific gravity of water, 1,000; 
specific gravity of iron, 7,202. Weight your cope ; measure 
surface and height in feet; multiply by 7,202. The answer 
will be in ounces." 

Mr. Jewett, in the " American Machinist" of Sept. 9, 1882, 
gives a rule in a manner that should be very explicit to those 
who are ignorant of the subject, of whom, I am sorry to say, 
there are thousands among moulders. He explains his rule as 
follows : "I assume a column of water 32 feet in height to 
equal 16 pounds water-pressure : then 16 feet equals 8 pounds, 
and 8 feet equals 4 pounds. Iron is 7^-^ times heavier than 
water : so, for 8 feet high, or 4 pounds of water, the correspond- 
ing pressure of iron would be 4 pounds, which multiplied b}^ 
7^ equals 31^^^ pounds. Four feet head would be one-half as 
much, or 15 y% pounds. Two feet would be one-half this latter 
quantity, or 7^^^ pounds. One foot would be one-half this, or 
3^ pounds ; and six inches head would equal 1^ or say 2 



RULER FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 107 

pounds. All displacemeut of cores must be computed accord- 
ing to depth, etc." 

This rule of Mr. Jewett's, assuming, as it does, that iron is 
7^ heavier than water, leaves a margin upon the side of safety. 
According to this, a cubic foot of cast-iron would weigh 487^ 
pounds, while the actual weight of the common run of gray 
cast-iron is about 450 pounds per cubic foot. However, the 
extra 37^ pounds in every cubic foot when used for flask 
weights will only aid in making copes more secure. The out 
come of his figures is, that to weight a cope there is 5^ ounces 
of weight required for every inch in height of head and square 
inch of lifting surface. To show the practical application of 
the rule, the following example is given : The section of mould, 
as seen at Fig. 67, is representative of a plate 12^y x 12^V'' 
with area of pouring-gate and riser out ; this would give us a 
lifting area of 144". Now, were we going to pour this with 
a head that would be 6" from the joint up to the top of gate, 
we must multiply the 5^ ounces six times, then with the prod- 
uct, which is 32 ounces, multiply the area of the cope's lifting- 
surface, which is 144" ; the product of this is 4,608 ounces = 
288 pounds. Now, did we desire to pour such a mould with 
a head 12 inches high, we should simply have to double the 
weight of 288 pounds, making it 576 pounds. Were a plate 
12" X 12", having a head of 12", poured slowly at the last so 
as to bring the head up very easily, a weight of 460 pounds, 
including the cope, would be just sufficient to hold it down. 
To do this, the gate and riser (the riser to be as large or 
larger in diameter than pouring-gate) must be placed on the 
pattern ; for were they to be placed upon the joint, and from 
them to the mould branch gates be cut, then there would be 
more than 144" of lifting surface. Four hundred and fifty 
pounds being the weight of a cubic foot of cast-iron, it is too 
near equilibrium to risk the 10 pounds added to the 450 holding 
down more area than the 144". When the 460 pounds wili 



198 RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 

hold down the 144" lifting surface, it is easy to see that the 576 
pounds, obtained for same purpose by Mr. Jewett's rule, will 
give quite a margin for safety. With the cope's weight added 
to such a margin, we have sufficient weight, as proved by the 
experiments, to safely hold down such character of copes. 
In moulds that will create extra momentum, it might, in some 
cases where the copes are light, be best to add more weight 
than the rule and weight of cope gives. 

A rule the author uses for flask weights is as follows : Multiply 
the lifting area by the height of head^ the product by the weight 
of a cubic inch of iron. To obtain the statical pressure, for 
instance to the cope of the plate mould, 12" x 12" referred 
to above, the following example is for a twelve-inch head : 

Length of lifting surface 12" 

Width of lifting surface 12" 

Lifting area 144" 

Height of gate 12" 

Cubic contents 1728" 

Weight of a cubic inch of iron .26 

Statical pressure 449.28 lbs. 

In figuring up the pressure necessary to resist in holding 
down copes, there are often certain cores which have to be 
taken into account. The amount of pressure partl}^ immerged 
cores will exert upwards depends upon their depth of lifting area 
in the liquid iron beloio the top of pouring-gate or head; and 
after a core becomes wholly submerged, its lifting force cannot 
be increased. The difference in weight it would require to hold 
down a core two feet below the surface of a body of metal, and 
tliat required to hold it down if just 1" or so below the surface, 
is practically nothing. Any rise of pressure is only attainable 
while the core remains partly immerged. To illustrate these 
points, there is shown a submerged core, as seen in Fig. 73 ; 
also a core not submerged, as seen in Fig. 74. Supposing the 



RULES FOR WEIGHTING COl'ES AND CORES. 



199 



section (Fig. 74) to be eight feet long, it would require G28yj''y2y 
pounds weight to hold down its statical head-pressure. Adding 





Actual Section of Average Section c/ 
Head. I'resswre. Head Pressure. 

Fig. 73. 



the cope's and core's weight to the 62893^% pounds, would 
allow such a poured mould plent}' of margin to overcome any 




Fig. 74. 

momentum of the lifting force. The following two examples 
show how the 'o2'6^d^^Q pounds was obtained : — 

Length of lifting surface 96" 

Width of lifting surface 12" 

Area of lifting surface . 1152" 

Height from bottom of core to top of basin . . 18' 

Cubic contents 20736" 

Weight of a cubic inch of iron ....<,. .26 

Statical pressure 5391. 3G lbs. 



200 RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 

As this only gives the core's lifting force, the copes must be 
added to obtain the total lifting power. The metal has a lift- 
ing surface of 3" upon each side of the core ; and the depth of 
the cope being 6", we have, therefore, the following for the 
total lifting force of the cope : — 

Length of lifting surface 96" 

Width of lifting surface 6" 

Area of lifting surface 576" 

Height from bottom of cope to top of basin . . 6" 

Cubic contents 3456" 

Weight of a cubic inch of iron .26 

Statical pressure of cope 898 56 lbs. 

Statical pressure of core 5391.36 " 

Total statical pressure 6289.92 " 

The above being illustrative of a core not submerged, we will 
next notice the conditions of a submerged core, illustrated by 
Fig. 73, which is a section of a pipe or column which we will 
suppose to be 12" outside diameter, the thickness of metal 1", 
length of casting 8 feet. In such a mould, it may in a sense 
be said, that there are two heads to exert a lifting pressure, 
one being that of the cope, and the other that of the core- 
From the joint up to the top of the gate, is the lifting pressure 
of cope. The lifting pressure of the core, as it is submerged, 
is the number of pounds of metal its body displaces^ minus the 
weight of the core. 

To make this more clear, suppose we have a pail full of 
water, into which is pressed a bottle corked air-tight. Now, 
before this can be pressed down below the water's surface, we 
will have to displace or allow the water to flow over the pail's 
edge. The weight of water displaced, less the weight of the 
bottle, is the pressure required to hold the bottle under the 
water's surface. Now, this bottle could be immersed as deep 
as the pail would permit, requiring practically no more press- 



RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 201 

ure thau it would take to hold it ^" below the surface of the 
water. Returning to the pipe-mould example, the rule for 
finding its statical pressure will be as follows : — 

TRESSURE OF THE COPE. 

Length of lifting surface of cope 96" 

Width of lifting surface of cope 12" 

Area of lifting surface of cope 1152" 

Height from the joint up to the top of the gate . 10" 

Cubic contents 11520" 

Weight of a cubic inch of iron .26 

Weight of statical pressure 2995.20 lbs. 

PRESSURE OF THE CORE. 

Length of submerged core - 96" 

Area of cross section 78-J" 

Cubic contents 7536" 

Weight of a cubic inch of iron .26 

Weight of statical pressure 1959.36 lbs. 

Allowing the core to weigh 100 pounds per cubic foot, and 
having a 6" print on each end, its weight would be about 520 
pounds : this deducted from the statical pressure will leave the 
buoyancy, or weight required to hold the core down, but 
1 ,4.39y3^% pounds ; which, added to the pressure of the cope, 
gives us the actual statical pressure such a mould would re- 
ceive when poured, 4,434^% pounds. 

A point to be remembered is, that partly immerged cores, 
similar to that seen in Fig. 74, take their pressure from the 
pouring-gate or basin height, while with totally submerged 
cores, as per Fig. 73, the height of a pouring-gate or basin 
has no effect upon them ; for, as above stated, after a core 
once becomes wholly submerged, its lifting pressure will not 
pi-actically increase, however high the head or the gate may be 
carried above it. 



202 RUl.ES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 

With reference to the weight required to hold down cores 
that stand vertically, similar to the centre core of cylinders, 
etc., that are cast upon their ends, there is theoretically no 
lift on a smooth, true, vertical-standing core. The reason that 
in practice vertical cores require to be weighted down is sim- 
ply because there is more or less danger of iron getting under 
them from various causes ; or, if the surface of the cores 
swells, or is rough, the iron may raise it ; and, again, cores 
rarely stand exactly plumb. The lifting-pressure upon verti- 
cal-standing, straight cores is one that would not admit of a 
rule being practically applied, from the fact that the lifting 
force may, from any of the above causes, be made to vary 
from practically nothing up to what it would take to hold down 
the core were its under-surface all immersed in fluid iron. In 
weighting down vertical cores, one must use judgment as to the 
chances involved, and weight them accordingly. 

A simple plan which could be often used to obtain the lift- 
ing-pressure of pipe, etc., cast horizontal, is illustrated by the 
small cuts A and D seen at right of Fig. 73. By this plan, 
lighter pressures are obtained than by the principles set forth 
in examples on p. 201 ; and in cases of larger cores than the 
size shown, it might often be well to add about ten per cent 
more weight than that calculated by the foi'egoing for the 
statical head. It must be understood that the weight obtained 
by either of these rules is intended to simply give the statical 
head pressure. To safely hold down the flasks, the weight of 
the cope is added ; and, should the style of pouring adopted be 
productive of extra pressure, then weight should be added in 
proportion to the lifting-force thus created. To figure the 
pressure by this latter plan, as at A, we first obtain the sec- 
tional area of the half-circle of the core B, which is 39^" ; then 
the sectional area of the width of the mould from the joint to 
the top of the pouring-gate, which is 120"; the two combined 
giving a sectional area of 159;^", as at A upon the right of 



RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES Ax\D CORES. 203 

Fig. 73. This, multiplied by the length, 96", gives us 15,288" ; 
which, multiplied by the weight of a cubic inch of iron, gives 
us 3,974y^o^o pounds, the weight to be placed upon the cope. 
In practice, to figure the pressure by this plan upon such a 
cope, I would not take the ti'ouble to find the sectional area of 
the lifting-heads, but would simply average the half-circle by 
taking in even numbers fully two-thirds its vertical height, and 
add it to the vertical height of head above the joint. This 
would throw the sectional half-circle area into a plain horizontal 
measurement, thereby giving a horizontal surface to be multi- 
plied by the average inches added to the gate's height, as 
shown at D. The curved dotted lines seen show where the 
horizontal plane was drawn in averaging the half-circle. To 
figure the pressure in this way, the example would be as fol- 
lows : — 

Length of lifting surface 96" 

Width of lifting surface 12" 

Area of lifting surface 1152" 

Height of head pressure 14" 

Cubic contents 16128" 

Weight of a cubic inch of iron .26 

Statical pressure 4193.28 lbs. 

Figuring the pressure according to the exact size of the 
lifting area, as seen above, we obtain 3974^^^ poun 's as 
the statical pressure. In guessing at the average, as in the 
last example, the statical pressure obtained, as seen, is 4193i^ 
pounds. This gives a weight of 218j4j% pounds more than the 
exact area calls for. 

The rule I have here given is one that can, to an extent, 
be worked mentally, and therefore will be of much assistance 
in aiding to determine (where time will not admit of figuring) 
the weight necessary to hold down a cope. To find the weight 



204 RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 

mentally : Form in the mind^ by mental calculation, a iveight 
equal to the size of the horizontal lifting surface up to the top of 
the gate. 

While this will no doubt appear very crude, it will, with 
practice, enable one to become very proficient in the art of 
guessing, especially if he will occasionally figure to learn how 
near he guessed. Of course, in guessing there should be a 
large margin upon the side of safety, as it is not possible that 
all can guess as closely as it can be figured. The term statical 
here used means acting by mere weight, and is applied to the 
pressure on copes after the momentum impulse has ceased. 
To overcome the momentum, good judgment must be exercised 
in determining its lifting force, and in adding weight sufficient 
to overcome it. If the mode of gating and pouring does not 
create much momentum, then the statical weight, combined 
with the copes' weight, will generally be sufficient to hold the 
copes down. 

The decimal .26, here used as the weight of a cubic inch of 
cast-iron, is not as near as we could figure ; but as its use 
involves the least figures, and it is not far from the most exact 
weight of a cubic inch of cast-iron, it is adopted. 

While upon this subject of '• head pressure," it seems a fitting 
place to present a few notes upon bolting down l)inders. As 
will be seen, working plans are shown of top binders. The two 
sizes shown, I sketched from those in actual use in '* our 
foundry." The design is one which I think is very handy for 
practical use. Wishing to know how much the bars would 
spring with a given weight, I had them supported at the ends 
and loaded in the middle, as shown in the engravings. The 
end view at Fig. 77 shows the plan adopted in order to load with 
the shop's weights. Two binders Avere rested upon solid end 
bearings, the distance between the binders being 18". As seen 
in side view, two flat bars were set 1 2" apart, after whicli the 
weights, which weiffhed upon the scales 12,840 '^ouuds, were 



RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 



205 



hoisted on. After being loaded, a template was fitted between 
the bottoms of binders and iron block T, as seen at X. The 







1± 



\i 







U.'^ 



ra 



-ti 




V-Tt— ) 




—%-* V 



weights were now hoisted off. With the top weights of 9,720 



pounds off, the binders (Fig. 76) rose up 



AVlien the total 



weight of 12,840 pounds was off, the space between the tern- 



20(3 RULES FOR WEIGHTING COrES AND CORES. 

plate and binders showed that this weight had deflected them 
■^" . The hirge binders (Fig. 75) were next tested, the same 
weights being used. With the 9,720 pounds off, they rose up 
{\" ; with the total 12,840 pounds ofif, the space showed, the 
two binders had deflected ^" . These experiments are interest- 
ing, as it may by them be seen that it is wrong to suppose that 
a cope cannot rise because it is bolted down. When well bolted 
down, I am fully aware, it will not rise so as to allow iron to run 
out, but this is not the rise I refer to. The rise that is likely to 
occur is where, for instance, there is a heavy lift at about the 
middle of the binders, such as would be caused by the binders 
holding down deep cores. It is, as a general thing, when cores 
have their vents taken off through the bottom of the mould, 
that we are likely to have trouble through liability of the 
binders to spring when the head pressure comes upon them. 
This spiinging of binders has also often caused castings to be 
thicker through their centre than the pattern called for, and has 
been the cause of getting iron into the joint vents. 

Taking core vents off through the bottom of mould, is in 
some cases very risky ; for, should they rise gV? it is sufficient 
to let the metal strain itself into the vents, and thereby send 
the casting to the "scrap-heap." Many moulders, to their 
sorrow, know this to be a fact. All binders will spring more 
or less. When there is danger of iron getting into under- 
vents, we should weight down the centre portion of the binders 
to the best of our judgment, so as to resist the tendency of 
any spring. While the design of binders here shown is very 
good, I think were a bottom flange cast on them, as seen in 
Fig. 78, the stiffness, by the addition of a few pounds of iron, 
would be greatly increased. 

As nearly all copes at the present day are weighted by guess- 
work, and some by no thought whatever, the rules and funda- 
mental principle herein set forth may be of use. While the 
rules will be of value in aiding to determine cope weights, it 



RULES FOR WEIGHTING COPES AND CORES. 207 

must be remembered that there are a hundred and one things 
that no rule can cover, which has been practically stated in 
article on "Weighting Down Ck)pes," vol. i. Good judgment, 
backed by experience, must be our guide in successfully pro- 
viding for copes standing that ofteu-dreaded test, — "head 
pressure. ' ' 



MISCELLAMOUS CHAPTERS. 



ELEMENTS AND MANUFACTURE OF FOUNDRY 
FACINGS. 

Foundry blackings have always been more or less a bone of 
contention between the user and manufacturer ; the former 
complaining of inferior goods, and the latter of ignorance in 
their use. There is no question but both are often right. 
Blacking can be of an inferior quality, and can also be iguo- 
rantly used. There are two things that stand in the way of 
investigating the qualities of blacking said to be poor. The 
first is, not knowing of what material it is made ; the second, 
the moulder's readiness to find any excuse for rough-skinned 
or scabbed castings. 

The manufacturer of blacking is ver^^ frequently censured 
for that used on heavy work. One reason for this is in the 
high qualit}- required for such work, and the fact that the 
moulder is called upon to make mixtures or washes of blackings 
before he can apply it to the mould. In this class of work, 
more than in any other, the manufacturer receives much unjust 
censure. In vol. i. p. 208, it is fully shown wherein much lies 
with the moulder in properly mixing blacking, and in putting 
it on his mould, in order to produce smooth-skinned castings. 

Blackings are often condemned that in reality are too good. 
Almost any blacking will cause trouble if not understandingly 
used. One complaint, often heard with light work, is that of 
blacking sticking when being printed or sleeked. Another is 
that of its washing or rolling up when pouring the mould. 
This last complaint is in reality a serious one, and one which 
the moulder is justified in making. A blacking which will wash 
208 



ELEMENTS AND MANUFACTURE OF FOUNDRY FACINGS. 200 

lacks cohesion, caused either by too coarse grinding or the 
want of a bond. The materials chiefly used for binding, or pre- 
venting blackings from washing, are leads and other minerals, 
and clays. Our heavy blackings are principally composed of 
carbon, coke, and anthracite, with the above-named bonds. 
The finer ground blackings are, the more cohesion and body 
they will possess, which makes them a better wash and dust 
for moulds. For a dust, fine-ground blackings are generally 
more or less sticky. In fact, it is generally an evidence of 
good quality and mixture, to have blacking sticky. A blacking 
that will stick while being sleeked or printed can generally be 
rehed upon to " peel " well. I know moulders dislike to work 
with sticky blackings, and condemn them. Of course, what 
we moulders want is a blacking that will "peel" well, and 
that will not stick. To thoroughly combine these two qualities 
in rich or heavy blackings, is one of the things facing-makers 
seldom accomplish. To assist the sleeking and printing of 
sticky blackings, charcoal is extensively used. In stove- 
foundries the moulders generally have two bags ; one contain- 
ing the peeling or heavy blacking, the other the charcoal. The 
heavy is first shaken on, then the charcoal. To make a nice 
"print," the pattern should be well brushed and dry ; and in 
shaking on the blackings, let the dust of the heavy blacking settle 
before the charcoal is shaken on, for shaking one bag immedi- 
ately after the other causes the contents of each to become more 
or less mixed, and thus the full benefit from the charcoal is not 
obtained. To the objection of the loss of time, it might be 
said, after shaking on the heavy blacking as soon as the pat- 
tern is drawn, then, while waiting for the heavy blacking's dust 
to settle, the time might often be emplo3'ed in drying and 
brushing off the patterns ; then, when every thing is ready, they 
can shake on the charcoal, and work as fast as possible until 
the pattern is drawn. If the speed is such as to get out the 
pattern before the charcoal becomes damp and incorporated 



210 ELEMENTS AND MANUFACTUllE OF FOUNDRY FACINGS 

with the heavy blacking, tlie "print" should be perfect; and 
in many cases there would be no time lost. Of course brushing 
off the pattern first allows it more time to dry. Nevertheless, 
if a good print is desired, by having a dr}^ pattern, and follow- 
ing the above rule, it will not be the moulder's fault if it is not 
obtained. A blacking that will not print well can often be 
sleeked ; and, in many cases, charcoal is as beneficial in help- 
ing to finish a mould which is sleeked as one which is printed. 
Charcoal is valuable in either case as long as the mould can 
be finished before the charcoal becomes damp, but after that 
more or less trouble may be experienced. 

When blacking sticks, not only does it cause vexation and 
loss of time, but is often the cause of rough or scabbed 
skinned castings. 

In the author's experience he often has had large green-sand 
moulds, which took a man half a day to sleek the blacking on 
them : were the blacking stick}-, much trouble would be ex- 
perienced, no matter how much we might try to "doctor" it 
with charcoal. Where it takes a long time to sleek a blacked 
green-sand mould, and the blacking becomes sticky, we find 
the dust of silver lead an excellent thing to use, and we often 
use it over ordinary blackings whether it is stick}' or not. 

With a few foundries it is becoming quite a practice to coat 
their moulds entirely with silver lead ; and these moulds, when 
done, will shine like a mirror. The lead is chiefly used on ac- 
count of its peeling qualities. In putting it on a mould, many 
use camel's-hair brushes ; and, again, others will shake it out 
of a bag, or throw it on by hand. Of course lead is expensive, 
nevertheless it has become very popular to be greatly used. 

Not only is charcoal good to assist bag-dust sleeking, but it 
also is an excellent article to have on hand for mixing with wet 
blacking. It frequently happens that blacking contains sub- 
stances of a very close or non-porous nature. These will often 
cause " blacking scabs." The introduction of a small propor- 



ELEMENTS AND MANUFACTURE OF FOUNDRY FACINGS. 211 

tiou of charcoal will often remedy this ; as the particles, being 
very light and porous, open up the pores of the mixture so as 
to cause the metal to lie more kindly to it. 

The use of blacking is simply to coat the surfaces of the 
mould with graphite or carbon, to prevent the heat of liquid 
iron from fusing or eating into the sand. Moulding-sands are 
composed more or less of silica, together with smaller quanti- 
ties of potassa, lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, etc. The po- 
tassa, lime, magnesia, and oxide of iron, are the parts that fuse. 
Tiiey combine with the silica to form silicates, or a kind of 
glass, which, upon heavy castings, may form a scale from ■^" 
to ^" thick, where the sand is not thoroughly protected with a 
coat of carbon, or, commonly speaking, blacking. All black 
leads consist chiefly of carbon ; the other ingredients lieing 
alumina, silica, lime, iron, etc. The freer leads are of these 
latter ingredients, tlie more intense heat will they stand before 
they will fuse. There are some leads, it is said, that no heat 
will fuse. As all good blackings are composed more or less of 
graphite, or, commonly speaking, leads, the reader will readily 
perceive the cause of their preventing liquid iron from eating 
into the surface sand of moulds, and why they provide for 
smooth-skinned castings. Of course, it is to be understood 
most blackings are but partly composed of leads. The more 
lead blackings contain, the better they are for peeling. This 
applies to loam as well as to green-sand moulds. Consequent- 
ly the larger per cent of graphite or lead blackings contain, 
the better. But as these blackings are expensive in proportion 
to the amount of graphite they contain, and as many foundry- 
men overlook quality to buy cheaply, it offers a premium to the 
manufacturer to use cheap materials in order to make cheap 
prices. The cheaper blackings are composed principally of 
Lehigh, coke, or gas-house carbons, with additions of various 
minerals, and contain little or no leads. Lehigh, coke, and 
carbons are seldom giound pure. The particles, as generally 



212 ELEMENTS AND MANUFACTURE OF FOUNDRY FACINGS. 

powdered, will lack cohesion, and therefore would be apt to 
float or wash when pouring green-sand moulds; therefore the 
necessity of their mixing in the various kinds of minerals or 
clays to obtain the required cohesion. The finer pure Lehigh, 
coke, or carbons are ground, the more cohesion will they 
possess. When ground very fine (which is something seldom 
accomplished), their cohesion may be suflacient to hold them 
without the use of any bond. 

The author, having for about two years been employed 
almost next door to the Cleveland Facing Mills, obtained from 
the mill's former manager, R. J. Hayes, an excellent insight 
into the manufacture of blackings. It is not a little surprising, 
the amount of machinery' and care required to turn out modern 
blacking. It would be a tedious job, and tiresome to the reader, 
to go into a minute description of the different crushers, pul- 
verizing machinery, etc , required to reduce the carbons, coke, 
Lehigh, leads, etc., which go to make up to a great extent our 
foundry blackings. The machinery is to some extent similar 
lO that of flouring-mills. The materials being hard, they are 
required to pass through several reduction machines before 
they are fed to the mills, after which they pass into the bolting- 
reels, where they are sifted through silk cloth, containing, it is 
said, about twenty-nine thousand holes to the square inch. All 
particles too coarse to pass through the cloth are let out at the 
end of the reels, and returned to the grinders. A facing-mill, 
so far as dust is concerned, is probably the dirtiest shop to be 
found. When in full operation, one can hardly breathe, or sec 
any thing but dust. The least generator of dust is that com- 
monly called sea-coal facing. The making of this blacking re- 
quires the least labor and manipulation of any with which mills 
deal ; as it is simply the product of a bituminous, or, as it is 
sometimes called, stone coal A great many take it for granted, 
that, because this blacking is called sea-coal, it is in some way 
a sea-product. Sea-coal is not what its name implies. It ac- 



ELEMENTS AND MANUFACTURE OF FOUNDRY FACINGS. 21 8 

quired this name mauj' years ago, when introduced as a fuel in 
Pvuglaud, being carried by sea to London ; and this misnomer 
still clings to it. 

In this country, the sea-coal used in our foundries is princi- 
pally derived from the mining regions of the Youghiogheny 
River and the Cumberland districts, and is selected for its free- 
dom from slate and sulphur, and its gas-bearing qualities. 
The quality of sea-coal blacking is less variable than that of 
an}' other blacking made, simply from the fact of its not being 
mixed with any other substances. Sea-coal, being mixed in 
with the sand, divides the particles, or fusible element of sand ; 
and what it don't divide it emits its gas among. The hydrogen 
and carbon sea-coal contains prevent, to a degree, sand fusing. 
There is a limit to the percentage of sea-coal that should 
be mixed with sand. When more than one of sea-coal to six 
of sand is used, unless the surface of the mould be well coated 
with good blacking, and the metal poured dull, there is in the 
heavy body of metal moulds much danger of the surface of 
the casting being more or less streaked or veined. Thorough 
mixing of facing- sand will, to a large degree, prevent this defect. 
When iron is poured into a mould faced with sand containing 
sea-coal, there is much gas generated. This gas, if not driven 
off by pressure, forms more or less of a cushion between the 
surface of the mould and metal. This cushion often prevents 
the iron from running into the corners and edges of moulds, 
and also often causes cold-shuts and smooth concave indenta- 
tions in castings. Moulds having been poured with dull iron, 
although the castmg may be heavily proportioned, will often 
present some of the above defects. In faced moulds, more or 
less of a gas cushion is raised ; and according to the amount 
of pressure, and the fluidity of the metal, the faster this' cushion 
is destroyed. When strong facings are used upon thin cast- 
ings, or those poured dull, the metal often becomes set before 
this cushion is all destroyed. Sometimes sea-coal causes the 



^14 ELEMENTS ANT) MANUFACTURE OF FOUNDRY !• ACINGS. 

surface of castings to 1>o covered with a coat of what might be 
termed coal soot. This, to occur to any great extent, requires 
certain conditions that seldom happen to combine. 

In mixing facing to assist in obtaining a full run and smooth- 
skinned casting, the moulder has often many points to consider. 
Many moulds are made that require two or three different 
grades of facing, such as one part to six, eight, or ten ; and 
not onl}' is the proportion and position of the different parts of 
castings to be considered, but time of pouring, and intended 
fluidity of metal as well. The amount of sea-coal to use, ac- 
cording to conditions, and suggestions upon the subject, will be 
found in vol. i. p. 363. 

As Lehigh, coke, graphites, and gas-house carbons form so 
great a factor in assisting the peeling of castings, a short his- 
tory concerning them may be interesting. Lehigh is simply a 
fine quality of Lehigh coal, chiefly obtained from the anthracite 
districts of Pennsylvania. It is essential that only the best 
quality should be used, as poor Lehigh containing slate and 
what is known as " nigger-head " would not contain the amount 
of carbon required to make good blacking. 

Coke blackings are principally made from " Connellsville 
coke;" it being selected on account of its fixed carbon, said 
to be as high as ninety per cent. 

Carbon, or gas-house retort slag, being a pure carbon, would, 
were it not for its hard, refractory nature, l)e more extensively 
used. Its hardness makes it difficult to be ground and bolted 
as fine as is necessary to make good blacking : therefore, when 
used, it is mixed with minerals that will overcome, to a degree, 
its refractory nature, and give it cohesion, which it lacks in a 
much greater degree than either Lehigh or coke. To give these 
refractory substances — Lehigh, coke^ and carbon — cohesion, the 
class of material used has much to do with the peeling quality 
of the blacking. The more carbon the ingredient used to give 
cohesion contains, the richer and better the blacking to with* 



ELEMENTS AND MANUFACTURE OF FOUNDRY FACINGS. 21.') 

staud heat. As leads coiilain the highest cohesive heat cle- 
ment, and are such an important factor in facings and blackings, 
a few lines upon their nature may not be out of place. A very 
fine grade of close-grained graphite or lead, and one exten- 
sively used, comes from Bohemia, Austria. Not only is this 
lead used in blackings, hut also enters to some extent info the 
matrnfactxire of stove-polish. Probably the most expensive lead 
used is that which is mined in the island of Ceylon. In its 
crude state, it looks like bright chips of burnished silver, from 
which fact it is commonly called silver lead. This is a very 
useful article, not only for mixing with blacking for green and dry 
sand, and loam work, but is also a splendid article to dust, in a 
dry state, over the surface of blacked moulds ; as it greatly assists 
the sleeking of the mould, and peeling of the casting. This 
lead is also ground for electrotyping purposes, and is extensively 
used as a lubricator for cylinders, etc. "While mentioning the 
leads produced abroad, America has also some mines of note : 
one especially, near Ticonderoga, N.Y., produces an excellent 
article, which is extensively used in making lead-pencils. 
North Carolina produces quantities of lead ; but as it is largely 
mixed with clays, hornblende, and other foreign substances, it 
is not of much value. Eastern Pennsylvania has several mines ; 
but as the lead requires so much treatment in cleaning, it is not 
very profitable to the producer. Tennessee has also vast beds 
of leads, more or less mixed with clays. Nova Scotia produces 
a lead which on account of its hard, flinty nature has so far 
been but little used. The leads of Ceylon and Europe, surpass- 
ing the home product, arc therefore the ones chiefly used. 

Charcoal, to make a good dust, requires to be made from 
hard maple wood, and burned with great care. Soft or any 
stringy-grained wood is not adapted for making charcoal 
facings. Stringy-grained wood preserves its stringy nature 
when charred, and makes a harsh powder when bolted. Soft- 
wood charcoal is even worse ; as it lacks the body necess^iry, 
beins; so light it will float or wash. 



216 ELEMENTS AND MANUFACTURE OF FOUNDRY FACINGS. 

A product not yet mentioned, and one sometimes used in 
foundries and mixtures of blackings, is soapstone.' This is 
found in many of the States, and is by some foundries used 
quite extensively, while others condemn its use on account of 
the light color or skin it gives to castings. 

It is a well-known fact, that, although moulders use blacking 
every day, but very few have the least idea of its manufacture, 
or properties which cause it to peel castings. 

This article may be effective in drawing attention and study 
to a material which, before it can be intelligently purchased 
oi- used, requires some knowledge of its constituents and 
manufacture. 

1 A substauce similar to soapstoiie called talc is now being much used and can 
often be mixed with or be made to take the place of lead in dry as well as wet 
blackings, to be effective in turning out a good smooth skin on castings. 



WELDING STEEL TO CAST-IRON. 217 



WELDING STEEL TO CAST-IRON, AND MEND- 
ING CRACKED CASTINGS. 

Can wrought-iron or steel be united to cast-iron ? is a' ques- 
tion that is sometimes asked. Either can be so united, but in 
the case of wrought-iron the union is so weak that for any 
purpose requiring strength it is useless. With steel, the point 
of union will be stronger than the cast-iron • at least, I obtained 
such results in experiments upon different brands of steel. 
Uniting steel or wrougut-iron to cast-iron, by the process here 
set forth, is, as far as I know, original. I have made many 
inquiries from well-informed parties, and all say the}' never 
heard of its being done before. 

The principle here involved, of uniting steel to cast-iron, is 
similar to that which foundrymen call "burning;" and there- 
fore the strength of the union will depend greatly upon the 
shape to be united, and on the plan adopted for uniting the 
pieces. In the "American Machinist " of Jan. 15, 1881, is 
the writer's first attempt at mechanical literature, in the shape 
of an article upon "Burning Heavy Castings" This article, 
also seen vol. i. p. 267, sets forth the proper principles to adopt 
in mending, or l)urning, when its adoption is practicable. 

In the cuts shown with this. Fig. 82 illustrates the old- 
fashioned style of burning, and the one which, even at the 
present day, is quite generally employed. This, in some cases, 
is excusal)le ; but it is a poor i)lan to use it for every job that 
comes along. In the first place, there is much more metal re- 
quired to Inirn or make a union ; and, in the second place, the 
burning or union is seldom su thorough as by the plan illustrated 



218 



WELDING STEEL TO CAST-IRON. 



in Fig. 80. At K the ragged line represents the dropping 
metal falling directly npon the materials to be united ; tlic fluid 
metal, by its striking force, soon eating into the solid. By the 
old-fashioned plan (Fig. 82), this eating process is lost, from 
the fact that the falling metal can strike but a very small por- 
tion of tliat to be burned. If a union is made, it has to be 
caused entirely by the metal's heat and flow ; as its falling force 




I'uiting Steel to Cast Ir.on 



Fig. 80. 



counts for but little. E represents the metal flowing into the 
cavity F, and H its flowing out. The inlet-gate being higher 
than the outlet, there of course is a current, upon which mainly 
depends the success of the operation. 

In jobs of this kind, the heat of the metal, length of flow, 
and nature of the work, must be carefully considered in deciding 
as to the strength of the union. Sometmies, by testing with a 
hammer the solidity of the parts may be determined ; but, as 
a general thing, observance of the points named is relied upon. 



WELDING STEEL TO AST-IRON. 



^19 



111 the burning of castings, invention and judgment are called 
for^ as the exact operations suitable for one job will seldom 
do for another. 

In the engravings are represented four plans suggestive of 
Ideas in the art of burning. Having noticed two figures, 
Figs. 80 and SI will be I'eferred to. The left of Fig. SO 
represents the burning of large flat surfaces. The reason 
the mould is inclined is to insure keeping bare the material 
to be burned or united to the cast-iron. In this cut are 
embodied two plans of gating. At S is an inlet-gate, placed 




Mending a Cracked I'lange. 
Fig. 81, 



Old Eashtoned Style of liurniufj. 
Fig. 82. 



SO as to be opposite the outlet P, thereby causing a flow over 
the entire surface. Were the surface broader than 2", there 
should l)e branch runners cut from the main gate S, to assist 
tlie spreading of the metal over the entire surface. The basin 
and gates, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, .5, and G, give ideas to show how 
the metal may be made to drop directly on the surface. The 
inclmation given the mould should not be more than enough to 
insure an easy flow. In the burning or uniting of large surfaces, 
it is best, when practicable, to have the plate or body which is 
to be united to the cast-iron made as hot as possible ; for, the 



220 WELDING STEEL TO CAST-IRON. 

hotter the plate, the less fluid metal will be required to make a 
weld. 

In some eases the steel or wrought-iron might be heated in 
a forge or furnace until the face to be united was about at a 
fusiug-point ; then by quickly placing the body in a ready- 
formed mould (which would, of course, require to be made of 
some such a material as loam or dry sand) , and covering 
it with the cope, the liquid cast-iron would require little if 
any "flowing through" in order to make a weld. Such a 
process would also be commendable in view of its diminishing 
the contraction strains. The strains that must exist in large 
surface bodies that are welded with such a difference in tem- 
perature as the " cold-burning" process demands, cannot but 
be serious, and often the cause of fractures or cracks in the 
welded body. 

The cut of the "mending a cracked flange" shows a plan 
that may be applied in various forms. The section represents 
the actual burning of a cracked flange by Robert Watson, in 
Todds & Co.'s foundry, Leithwalk, Scotland. The casting 
was a cylinder, one flange of which was cracked half wa}^ 
around. The casting being placed in al)Out the position shown, 
the parts around the crack were covered with cores, to prevent 
the metal from striking or burning other than the portion in- 
tended. The cores were made in short sections, and, of course, 
expressly for the job. In mending the cracks, it was done in 
sections of from 6" to 8" \n circumference at a burning. The 
stream of metal would fall directly into the crack, until it was 
seen to have cut about f of an opening. After each burning 
became solid, the cylinder, having a chain around it hitched to 
the crane, would be rotated into i>lace for the next operation. 
The arrangement at one end of the portions to be burned was 
such as to allow the metal to imn off, thereby preventing the 
gathering of a head that would prevent the falling stream from 
forcibly entering the crack. The point of " run-off" would be 



WELDING STEEL TO CAST IRON 221 

about on a level with the highest point of the civenmferonce 
As iron runs level, the surface of the mended portion would 
present something like the section R. This unevenness could, 
to some extent, be chipped off, so as to leave a circle as near 
as could be without doing injury by jarring. As soundness, 
not symmetry, was the point sought, a little roughness was not 
objectionable. In burning such a crack, there is a liability that 
the hot iron will eat its way through, and leave the inside, at 
M, rough. To prevent this, cores could be made to the 
proper circle, and firmly rammed up against it, or a loamy 
facing could be used at this place. As to the success of the 
operatiou, Mr. Watson says that the cylinder, about two 
months after the operation, was returned to have the balance 
of the flange mended ; it having cracked, while the mended 
portion remained as sound as any portion of the cylinder. 
Some may argue that the first burning was the cause of tlie 
second crack : it may have been so. And this is a point that 
should be often considered ; for, no doubt, such burning will 
often cause more or less strains elsewhere. To assist in pre- 
venting this, the casting to be burned should l>e made as hot 
as practicable, either by placing it in an oven, or by surround- 
ing it with fire or hot irons. In this case the casting was not 
only heated in the oven, but hot scraps of iron were placed 
upon it. The crack was mended during the time of one heat ; 
and, as Mr. Watson puts it, he never worked more lively nor 
sweat so much in his life. 

As already stated, steel and cast-iron can be united. I will 
further explain the cut at right of Fig. 80, as it may present 
ideas in arranging for the union of many differently shaped 
articles. 

This mould represents the uniting of a piece of steel I" 
square by 12" long to the same-sized piece of cast-iron. The 
process was as follows: A pattern 1" square by 24" long is 
rnnimcd up in a flask. In the bottom board, as shown, is a 



222 WELDING STEEL TO CAST-IRON. 

hole about 2" in diameter. This admits of ^" thickness Of 
sand to prevent the hot iron which runs through the I" hole 
from burning the board, and also causes more surety in phig- 
ging-up ; for, were the hole surrounded with wood, the hot iron 
would burn itself through, and make the plugging-up a blun- 
dering job. It would be better in all cases if iron plates were 
used instead of the wooden bottom boards. In fact, if all the 
flask were iron, it would be best. Tiie mould having been 
made, the piece of steel is laid in, and the mould closed. 
Then, after being firmly clamped together, it is up-ended in a 
pit, as shown ; and then, with about a hundred pounds of hot 
iron, start pouring a steady small stream. When within about 
twenty-five pounds of the end, slacken the pouf\ng, so as to 
have but a small stream, at which time let the outlet A be 
quickly and reliably stopped. After this, quicken the pouiing 
until the mould is filled up. Properly stopping the outlet is very 
essential; for ^ if not done successfully the first time, it is as inju- 
rious to the burning as is slow, blundering welding at the black- 
smith-forge. A good plan for stopping is to securely place a 
jjointed ball of clay on the butt end of a rammer or iron stop- 
per, make sure aim, and firmly hold the hole closed until the 
metal is set. The gate B illustrates the use of side inlets, 
should it be desirable to burn more than one piece in the same 
flask. 

Tiie burning of steel is by no means restricted to straight 
bars. A variety of forms might be united by simply making 
the moulds the shape of the article wanted, and then placing the 
oteel in its proper place. The gates could be often formed, 
and the mould so placed as to have the hot east-iron flow over 
most of the exposed surface, to an outlet. In some cases, 
rhere might be a necessity for more than one outlet, as well as 
mlet, to which there would be no objection. The point to be 
aimed at is, to have a deadfall upon all jMssible exposed parts, 
and an outlet from same if ixracticahle. With many moulds, it 



WELDING STEEL TO CAST-IRON. 228 

would be better were they of dry sand, or loam ; as the drop- 
ping and washing of much running iron would often cause a 
green-sand mould to produce a rough-skinned job, and cause 
dirt in the mould, which would of course be injurious to the 
work. 

Cast-iron used for burning purposes should be very soft, and 
the temperature of the melted iron as high as possible. The 
reason for giving soft iron the preference is simply because 
soft iron does not chill as quickly as hard iron, and will retain 
its life or fluidity longer, and also will form a stronger union. 
The amount of iron to use for burning purposes will be regu- 
lated by the class of burning to be done, and condition of the 
iron used, etc. For direct falling upon plain square or round 
surfaces, the following table might in some cases be used. 
The table at its best is but a rough approximation ; for in some 
cases it might be in excess, and in others it might prove defi- 
cient. In burning any work that needs a steady stream, we 
should have plenty of iron ; then, in the methods which have 
been described, and bj' the use of good judgment, we siiould 
be able to decide when sufficient metal has been pouied in ; 
then the pouring can be stopped, and the remaining metal used 
for pouring other work. The amount of iron that may suc- 
cessfully burn a like piece of work to-day may to-morrow be 
insufficient. There are many tilings which cannot always be 
controlled in giving to any calculation a certainty of assured 
success for burning or mending castings. 

For a surface of 2", square or round, use 250 pounds ; 3", 
400 pounds ; 4", 550 pounds ; 5", 700 pounds ; 6", 850 pounds ; 
7", 1 ,000 pounds. Above 7", for every additional inch added 
to the square or diameter, add 200 [jouuds. This, if con- 
tinued up to a surface of 20" square of round, would call for 
3, GOO pounds of hot iron to accomplisli the burning (for tlie 
square surfaces, it might be well to add about ten per cent to 
the given weights) . A point that might be well to mention is 



224 WELDING STEEI- TO CAST-IRON. 

that the parts to be burned should 1)0 chipped, or the scale 
removed, so as to give the fluid iron the best possible chance 
to eat into its surface. Any who are interested in this subject 
will find additional information in the article " Burning Heavy 
Castings," vol. i. p. 267. Before closing it might be well to 
state that the softer the metal is in the cast-iron casting to be 
burnt, the better the chances are for making a successful weld, 
and also the less is the risk of cracking the casting duiing 
the operation or afterward. After the burning, the slower the 
cooling, the less the danger of checks or cracking. In many 
cases it is well to keep the casting warm as long as practical, 
by surrounding it with hot scraps of the iron used for the 
burning. 

The subject of mending or burning is one well worth study- 
ing, and one that generally calls for good judgment and expe- 
rience. Before a novice undertakes a difficult job of this kind, 
it ivould be better for him to experiment with %mimx)ortant pieces. 
Burning is a jol) that seldom can be done twice, on account 
of the surface losing much of its life or texture. Should the 
second burning be required, the fractured sui'face should be 
cut down until good metal is again seen ; but in all cases use 
qM precaution towards making the first burning a success. 



FOUNDRY AUDITION.- OVEIsS AND PITS 225 



FOUNDRY ADDITION— OVENS AND PITS. 

There having been bnilt a, large addition to a foundry in 
which the author has averaged ten hours per day as foreman 
for about six years (the Cuyahoga AVorks, Cleveland, 0.)' it 
has occurred to him that a description of the laying-out of the 
ovens, moulding-pits, and cranes might interest others, and 
give ideas which would be applicable in other instances. The 
Ijlack border represents the outline of the foundry. The new 
shop, as shown, is partly divided from the old shop by the par- 
tition-walls A B. In the old shop, there are four cranes, two 
cui)olas, brass furnaces, moulding-pits, etc. As there is noth- 
ing except their antique history that could be set forth to inter- 
est the reader, I have omitted showing a plan of the old shops, 
cranes, pits, etc., and devoted the space to showing section- 
views of the loam-pit, ovens, etc., of the new shop. Credit is 
due the president of the works, J. F. Holloway, for providing 
for comfort, and furnishing handy facilities for the new shop ; 
no expense being spared to provide every thing requisite in that 
direction. "We have abundance of light and ventilation, steam- 
cranes that rapidly do the moving of heavy loads, excellent 
moulding-pits, and ovens that surpass any I know of for prop- 
erly dryino; moulds or cores. Although we use slack or soft 
coal for the lires, a mould or ':^re will, when dry, be almost as 
clean as when first put into the oven. Another important 
feature is, that the ovens will dry rapidly, and still not burn, a 
mould or core. 

The three ovens, as will be seen, are fired from one pit. The 
draught flues being at extreme ends of the oven, and the channel 
for heat to travel being diverted from side to side, there is but 

• The Cuyahoga Works was soid Jan. 1, 1887, and is now known as the Cleveland 
ShipBuilding Company. The author has resigned his position with this firm, and id 
now a member of the Thomas D. West Foundry Company, of Sharpsville, Pa. 



226 FOUNDRY AUDITION. — OVENS AND PITS. 

a small chance for heat to escape entering throagh the joints 
and thickness of the boiler-plates up into the oven before it can 
enter the flue at F, H, and K. The arrow-like lines represent 
the heat passing from the fires to the flue. The partitions, x , 
divert the direction of the heat, and also support the covering 
plates and carriage-track. A clearer idea of partitions, etc., 
may be had from the elevation of the oven at K. The covering 
plates, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, are boiler iron \" thick, cut into 
sections the width of the flue's partitions. As neither of the 
oveiis is partitioned like another, the sizes of plates all differ. 
The core-oven plan is shown having the plates and track laid. 
As will be seen, the plates upon the outside of the track, which 
are shown black, are free at any time to be lifted, in order to 
clean out the soot. Were the plates in one continuous piece, 
the width of oven, then to clean out the ovens under flues 
would necessitate the lifting- up of the carriage-track. Where 
the fire enters the first flue or partition, the boiler-plates are 
left out, and in their place a cast- iron plate ^" thick, having 
prickers 2" long, and daubed up with fire-clay, is used. This 
is to prevent the direct flame from buckling and burning out 
the plates. 

There are no holes whatever in any of the plates ; the heat 
passing through them and their joints, which, of course, are not 
air-tight, heats up the oven. Were there holes in the plates, 
the}- would seriously injure the draught of the under flues, 
and also let much smoke into the ovens, thereby destroying 
essential points to be overcome in using slack for firing. To 
be able to fire with slack or soft coal, and still keep moulds 
and cores free from soot, is something that will lie appreciated 
by all moulders and core-makers that work around ovens. 
Not only does soot make every thing look dirty, but it is more 
or less productive of rough castings. 

Another arrangement which I doubt being found in any other 
foundry oven is that for preventing smoke. Upon each side of 




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226 



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FOUNDRY ADDITION. — OVENS AND PITS. 227 

the fireplaces, about on a level with the fire, are f" openings, 
seen at E in elevation. To admit air to these openings, there 
are channels leading from the outer fronts. In the rear of 
these openings, the brick is left open about 4" x 6", running 
tiie entire length of fireplace. This opening gives a reservoir 
iu which the air becomes heated before being drawn into the 
fire. This is, I believe, claimed to be beneficial in assisting 
" smoke-burning " or combustion. 

The grate surface for the fires contains an area equal to about 
32"x 38". The fireplaces are all faced with one thickness of 
fire-bricks, and the lops of fireplaces are arched over with fire- 
bricks. Under the large oven are two fireplaces. The one 
nearest core-oven is used for heating the same, and is so con- 
structed, with damper arrangement, that, should an extra heat 
be required in the large oven, both of the fires can be turned 
on to it. As shown at D, in "elevation of oven," each oven 
has a small man-hole door whereby the flue leading to the 
chimney ^can readily be cleaned. 

The tops of the ovens are covered with a series of arches. 
Fig. 83 shows how the wrought-iron girders, Fig. 84, are held 
together. For the two small ovens, two rows of bolts are used ; 
for large oven, three rows. Upon the tops of these ovens we 
store and keep shop-tools, etc. The way the tops are formed, 
tons of weight can be laid upon them, and do no harm ; and the 
combined area of the tops makes a splendid storeroom for sys- 
tematically keeping foundry tools. Altogether the ovens arc a 
success, and a credit to their designer, the late Mr. Holloway. 

A very novel and no doubt good plan for heating up ovens 
is that to be seen in Mackintosh & Hemphill's (Fort Pitt 
Works) Foundry, Pittsburgh, Peun. The foreman, William H. 
Conner, informed me that they dried their moulds and cores by 
the use of " natural gas." The old fireplace, which had been 
used for firing with coal, was simply filled up with bricks thrown 
in loosely : then, a small shaving fire being started, a very light 




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1M3JS<** 



228 FOUNDRY ADDITION. - OVENS AND PITS. 

jet of the gas was delivered among the bricks. The gas, when 
ignited , raised tlie bricks to a white heat ; and the heat which 
they would throw oft" heated up the oven. 

The loam-pit shown is made up of four cast-iron rings, the 
thickness of rim being If". The castings were made from a 
segment about 24" long. The rings have a taper of 1^" to the 
foot, and when together form steps, as shown. These steps 
are very handy for building staging upon, or standing on, and 
in getting in and out of the pit. When moulds are so small as 
not to sufficiently fill the pit, we ram them up in curbing ; the 
mould, of course, being in the pit. When such moulds are 
cast and ready to be taken out, they can be hoisted out alto- 
gether ; or a few of the bolts are loosened, and the curbing 
hoisted up. This leaves the sand free to be shovelled up, and 
castings taken out. Were the mould sufficiently large to fill 
the pit, the sand rammed between the mould and cast-rings 
woujd then, of course, require to l>e shovelled or dug out. In 
such a case, the ))cnefit of the taper of tlie pit is seen. The 
taper allows the shovel to free the sand much easier than were 
the pit straight. When tlie pit has l)een dug down to about 
half its depth, if the mould and casting are not exceptionally 
heavy, the two cranes can be hitclicd on, and the whole hoisted 
out without further digging. 

Making the pits with cast-iron rings provides something solid 
and relialile ; which is as cheap as, if not cheaper than, any of 
the otlier styles commonly used. 

Many will wonder at, and not comprehend, the use of the 
"entrance-pit" shown. For many shops, there is no call for 
such an under entrance ; and, again, there are many shops where 
it would be found very useful. An under entrance, such as 
shown, is an excellent vent channel for safely venting moulds 
similar to cylinders, etc., having heads cast on as shown on 
p. 5G. Not only with us is this channel handy for carrying off 
vents ; but it is a necessity on account of the shop's old estab- 



FOUNDRY ADDITION. — OVENS AND PITS. 220 

)ishc(l custom of making cvlinclers, the plan of which is shown 
in the chapters "Casting Whole or in Parts" (p. 54), and 
" Moulding a Jacket Cylinder " (p. 60). 

As wnll be noticed, the pit is entirel}' imder the swing of one 
crane : the other crane reaches to about its centre. The loca- 
tion of the pit gives us all the advantages possible : in fact, the 
plan of every thing we well studied in order to utilize every 
):)art of the shop, and make it as handy as practicable. The pit 
is out of the way of the green-sand moulders ; and the loam- 
moulds can, without any changing of cranes, be taken off the 
oven-can-iages, and lowered into any portion of the pit ; and 
when needed the mould can be poured with two crane ladles. 

The plan of the core-maker's portion of shop is one which 
would be hard to equal for heavy work, being handy and out of 
everybody's way. The oven is right at the core-maker's hand, 
and he has a crane he can use at any moment. 

The loam-moulders work under the same crane that loads the 
oven-carriages, and in a portion of the shop where they are 
not interfered with by any other class of work. 

The green-sand bolting-down floors are, I think, shown 
plainly enough not to require description. 

Fig. 85 gives the dimension of the binders laid in the bottom 
of bolting-down floors. The dots shown, and numbered 1, 2, 
3, 4, etc., locate the distances of the bolting-hooks shown at 
Fig. 86. The square end fits the binders, and the round eye is 
the end into which screw-hooks are hitched when bolting down 
a cope. The tops of the hooks, Fig. 86, come up within thi-ee 
or four inches of the top of moulding-floor. From the top of 
floor down to top of planks upon bottom binders, will average 
eight feet The half of longest bolting-down floor, towards the 
ovens, is over nine feet deep. This gives us a good chance to 
sink bottom parts of moulds made of loam, upon which green 
sand is made to form the upper portion of "deep moulds." 
This is a much-practised custom with us in making deep green- 



230 FOUNDRY ADDITION. — OVENS AND PITS. 

sand moulds, as it prevents bottom straining. This long bolt' 
ing-down floor is set slanting with the square of the shop, so as 
to admit of its being reached at any portion by a crane, and 
also in order to bring the end nearest the oven under the loam 
end crane so far as practicable in order that the bottom parts 
of moulds in the loam may be taken direct from the oven-cat 
riages, and lowered down into the moulding-floor. The reason 
we did not make the shortest bolting-down floor longer than 
shown was because we expected to be obliged to sink a small 
loam-pit between it and the large loam-pit shown. 

The " delivery track" shown conveys the iron from cupolas 
up to the cranes, and takes the casting out to the yard crane. 
One car answers both purposes ; and, as the subject is of 
interest, it is shown on p. 232. 

It is to be understood that this plant is not given as a model 
to construct from, but simply as illustrative of ideas that in 
many ways may be of value in helping to locate shop tools, 
etc., to the best advantage, and also aid in getting foundry 
Ijuilders to learn that the day has passed for them to think 
" any thing is good enough for a foundry." 




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LAl^LE AND CASTING CARRIAGE COMBINED. 231 



LADLE AND CASTING CARRIAGE COMBINED 

The engravings seen are perspective and plan \'iews of a 
carriage nsed in " onr foundr}'." Wishing to " kill two birds 
with one stone," I devised it so as to be safe for conveying 
large ladles of metal as well as heavy castings. 

With the ladle set in the car, should any thing break, it 
could not fall more than two inches, nor is there any danger of 
the ladle sliding or falling off the car. To see a heavy ladle 
full of fluid iron away up off the ground, does not inspire one 
with feelings of security or confidence^ although it may be per- 
fectly safe. Many shop?, that are obliged to truck their metal 
and castings have two cars, one for ladles, and the other for 
castings. I think many of them would prefer to have one, 
could it be made to answer the purpose of both. 

The construction of the car is very simple, and it costs but 
little labor to make. The car was cast "open sand ; " the ladle- 
box was formed with a dry-sand core. The holes as B, E, K, 
and F, made a good bearing for the box-core to rest upon. 
These holes were cast in for the purpose of lightening the 
casting. 

• The pockets, as atHH (Fig. 88), are simply for the purpose 
of placing in arms, should a wider carriage be desired. The 
carriage-wheels are 16" diameter, and are cast solid. The axles 
are wrought iron, 3" diameter, and were cast in the wheels. 
Before the axles were cast in the wheels, they were used as 
chills to form the carriage's axle bearings. The axles at this 
time were 3^-^" diameter. After l)eing cast in the wheels, they 
were turned down to 3" diameter, in order to make them ex- 



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232 



LADLE AND CASTING CARRIAGE COMBINED. 



actly central with the wheel rims, nnd at the saine lime lo leavfe 
a little play in the bearings. 

The cap, as seen at 11, is made hollow, so as to form an oil- 




Fig. 87. 

box in which waste satnrated with oil can be kept. The 
leathers over the axles, shown in view (Fig- ^7), are lor ihd 
purpose of keeping out dirt. 



LADLE AND CASTING CARRIAGE COMBINED. 233 

1 think the practical man will sec that the plan described is 
one which should cause a heavy carriage to run easily. Al- 
though this carriage weighs about forty-five hundred pounds, 
two men can reaxlily move it. For pulling heavy loads, we have 
a wu'e cable arrangement which is operated by power. The 
carriage-wheels might by special arrangement be made with 
their axles run in "anti-friction " bearings similar to the method 
set forth in "Travelling Crane" (p. 414), if one wished to im- 
prove upon the car shown. In making such anti-friction bear- 
ings, it must be remembered, very " fine fits " are necessary to 
make the bearings a success. 

The pei-spcctive view of car shows it loaded with one of our 
crane screw-ladles, which for simplicity in design and good 
working is worthy of notice. The hand-wheel is detachable, 
and the rim of same is made of wood. This prevents it from 
becoming hot from the ladle's heat, thereby leaving it free to 
handle. 

While the carriage shown is applicable to but few shops, it 
may give ideas that some time will come in play in others. To 
state the most weight such a car should carr3% is at its best but 
guess-work : however, I would sa}', that, if squarely loaded 
over tlie axles, the car should carry thirty tons. 



284 CHILLED ROLLS, ROLL FLASKS. KUNNEES. AND GATES. 



MAKING CHILLED ROLLS, AND ROLL FLASKS, 
RUNNERS, AND GATES. 

In the engraving will be found illusti-ated different ways of 
constructing flasks, runners, etc., for making chilled rolls. For 
a very valnable feature of this article, I am indebted to 
John E. Parker of Beloit, Wis., who very kindly sent me a 
sketch and description of a simple and novel plan, and one 
that may be valuable for other purposes than roll-making. 

JNIr. Parker was led to devise the rigging shown, to overcome 
the difficulty of the upper neck cracking, caused by the vertical 
contraction of the body of the roll in cooling. For this pur- 
pose he makes what he terms a sleeve, as shown in the engrav- 
ing (Fig. 89). It is made of cast-iron, and is about |" thick 
when finished. It is turned on the outside so as to fit easily iu 
the chill. The distance this sleeve sits into the roll varies from 
6" to 20", according to the length of roll. The upper neck of 
tliis roll is moulded the same as in an ordinary flask. In clos- 
ing, or getting the mould ready to cast, the height of the neck is 
regulated by placing three scantling, or screw nuts and blocks, 
as represented at Z), A, and K. The blocks K can be either 
iron or wood, and different sizes and numbers of pieces can be 
used as required. 

The rolls thus made are used for paper machinery, and var}' 
in sizes from 6" up to 14" in disimeter, and from 40" to 80" in 
length. The chills are made in lengths of 20" to 30", and set 
one upon the other, as shown at P. To handle these chills, 
the trunnions shown at R are used. 

Different thicknesses of chills are required for different 



CHILLED ROLLR, ROLL FLASKS, RUNNERS, ANP GATES 23;*) 



diameters of rolls. As a rule, about |" of chill for every 1" 
diameter of roll is about right. In the instance of a roll 14" 






X 



Whirl Oate 






'I'liitf'n'tif'tiiiiiri'iimin 




Fig. 89. 

diameter, the chill will be 5^" ; for one 30", 11^". This thick 
body of iron is not for the purpose of resisting the pressure 



2SG CHILLEID ROLLS, ROLL FLASKS, RUNNERS, AND GATES. 

due to the bead, l)ut to effect a deep fliill from the surface of 
the casting, and to prevent the chill from cracking, resulting 
from the surface being suddenly heated. 

The following is a table giving the thickness of chill for rolls 
ranging from 4" diameter to ISO", and varying in length from 
one foot up to that required for the common lengths of rolls 
made. 



Diameter 


Thickness 


Diameter 


Thickness 


Diameter 


Thickness 


OP Roll. 


OF Chill. 


OP Roll. 


op Chill. 


OF Roll. 


of Chill. 


4" 


2" 


13" 


4|" 


22' 


8\" 


5" 


2r 


14" 


H" 


23" 


8|" 


G" 


3" 


15" 


51" 


24" 


9" 


7" 


H" 


IG" 


6" 


25" 


9|" 


8" 


3\" 


17" 


6|" 


26" 


9|" 


9" 


3|" 


18" 


6f" 


27" 


lOi" 


10" 


3|" 


19" 


7i" 


28" 


lOi" 


11" 


H" 


20" 


IV 


29" 


10|" 


12" 


4i" 


21" 


7|" 


30" 


lU" 



The diameters 4", 5", 6", 7", and 8" are not, as will be seen, 
figured upon the basis of |" per 1" given, for the reason the 
body of the chill would then be a little too light for safety ; or, 
as stated alwve, it is the sudden heating-up of the chill's sur- 
face, and not the pressure of the metal, that we have, in great 
measure, to contend with. The smaller rolls have nearly the 
same influence in suddenl}' heating the surface of the chills as 
the larger rolls. Suddenly heating the surface of course ex- 
pands it : therefore more or less strain must be exerted upon 
the cold iron back of the surface. From this cause I have 
seen car-wheel chills fly in two pieces before the mould was 
half full of metal. I think the moulder will now see why the 
author did not adhere to his basis of |" to the 1" for the small 
sizes of chills mentioned, and the advisability of making the 



CHILLED ROLLS, ROLL FLASKS, RUNNERS, AND GATES. 237 

smaller-sized chills thicker in proportion than those above the 
9" in diameter shown. 

In making chills, the best of iron should be used, or they 
will not last long enough to pay for the making. The surface 
of a chill becomes rough from use, then checks, and eventually 
is useless. Often, in breaking them up, from the surface to an 
inch in depth the iron is found to be burned. 

When chills are made in sections, to make different lengths, 
or for convenience in handling, the joints must be made true 
and tight. For clamping together, flanges can be cast on, as 
shown at Y. 

Mr. Parker, for securing his flask, uses two long bolts and 
a top ring binder, shown at N. This binder, being placed on 
top of the sleeve , is bolted to the bottom plate by bolts E E. 
Should it be desirable to use such sleeves independently of the 
lower part of the flask, lugs or handles could be cast on 
the ciiills, and the sleeve held down and operated by means 
of the bolts shown at F F. The lower portion, or neck of the 
rolls, is moulded as shown at the riglit-hand side of the cut. 
The flask parts at Fto allow for making a whirl-gate, as shown 
in the plan of ^- joint E E" of the small flask (Fig. 90). 

For r;unming-up the pouring-runner X, Mr. Parker uses a 
cast-iiou pipe, tlie arrangement of the nowel being similar to 
that shown in the details of the smaH roll flask. Black-lead is 
rubbed on the chills to prevent the iron from sticking, and the 
rolls are poured with hot uon. 

Some men, after the chills have been taken out of the oven, 
where they were placed to be heated for casting in, wash the 
face of the chill over with a thin coat of blacking, composed of 
ordinary blacking wet with molasses-water. 

In order to economize space, I liave shown, attached to the 
cut of Parker's flask, another device sometimes used in pouring 
such jobs. 

W W are plan and section of a basin which can be connected 



238 CHILLED ROLLS. ROLL FLASKS, RUNNERS, AND GATES. 

to or cast on the end of either a square or round runner-pipe. 
B represents a quarter-turn pipe or box, jointed to the runner- 
pipe and flask at S S. This arrangement saves the work of 
parting the flask to gate the mould. 

At 1, 2, 3, and 4, is shown tlie manner of constructing the 
elbow in halves and bolting together. This permits of its 
being taken apart, should there be any trouble in getting out the 
easting, or from the breaking of gates. 

It would be safer to have the lower joint S secured by bolts ; 
the upper joint S can be secured with clamps if desired. 

The small chill flask represented in Fig. 90 is a very conven- 
ient one, and its construction embodies ideas that are applicable 
to other jobs. 

At KK is shown a sectional view of the guide-rings made in 
chills. These are all turned out exactly the same diameter. 

U M represent grooves turned in a cast-iron " mould-board." 
This is used to ram up the cope and nowel on. There is also 
turned in it a recess to centre and hold the neck pattern. By 
the use of this rigging, there is no possibility of the neck 
getting out of the centre in closing. 

With the exception of the single- whirl gate, "joint EE'* 
shows the plan or top view of the nowel section M. "Joint 
B B" shows the bottom view of section M. 

Numerals 2, 3, 4, and 5, on the plan view of "joint SS," 
represent lugs by which to clamp the bottom-plate. 

At joint B B, the guide-pins are made to serve the purpose 
of bolts or clamps. Holes XX are for clamping and lifting 
the chills. The runner-box has a loose plo.te made in halves. 
To hold this plate, two straps, T T, with threads, are used. 

Gating chilled rolls is always a point of prominent consider- 
ation. 

As a rule, the hotter, the faster, and with the more whirl, 
the iron fills the mould, the cleaner the chilled face. The 
temperature of the iron must, however, be regulated by a 




Fig. 90 



nilLLEl) ROLLS, ROLL FLASKS, RUNNERS, AND GATES. 230 

consideration of preserving the chilled roll from checking oJ 
cracking. 

I prefer getting the gate as near as practicable to the body 
of the roll, as by so doing the whirl of the iron is increased. 
The iron should be poured as rapidly as is possible, without 
any stopping. 

In the cut (Fig. 89), as shown, one basin is represented 
higher than the other. Some prefer the lower one, — so as 
to make sure of not filling the feediug-head too full, thereljy 
leaving room for hot feeding-iron. Others prefer the higher 
basin T^, as giving more force to the metal entering the mould. 

By careful watching of the moulds, large basins of iron, 
which are not conveniently melted in the absence of an air- 
furnace, arc avoided. It is only the chilled portion of the roll 
that requires rapid pouring or filling ; so, with long-necked rolls, 
the pouring can be slower toward the last, giving a better 
opportunity to " watch up " the rise of the iron. 

By using the double whirl-gate, shown at " joint BB," nearly 
double the amount of whirl is given the iron. With this double 
gate, I have seen dirt gathered to the centre in a l)all nearly 3" 
m diameter. This would rise up through the neck into the 
foeding-head in a solid body so as to acbiiit of being taken out, 
leaving nothing but clean metal in the head and casting. Had 
the mould been poured without the whirl-gate, this dirt would 
have been greatly scattered, and lodged against the surface of 
the roll or under the upper neck. 

This whirl-gate is useful not only in making rolls, but often 
for other classes of castings, especially those eylindi'ical in 
form. 



240 



MOULDING-MACHINES. 



MOULDING-MACHINES. 

With some classes of work the use of a machine for assisting 
the moulder in making castings with accuracy and success is 
often very admissible ; but never in moulding have machines 
produced the excess of product over hand-labor, that machines 
generally accomplish in the other trades. Many have the idea 
that because moulding-shops are not strung overhead with lines 
of shafting, pulleys, belts, etc., they are away '■'behind the 
age." In one sense it may be true ; but they are behind more 
on account of their failure to possess a general understanding 
of the true principles of moulding, than in their lack of 
machines in shops. 

There certainly is work that can and will be done in time by 
machines, which has not yet been attempted ; but I think it a 
safe assertion, that skill and experience will be surely required, 
in a greater or less degree, to assist the machinery. I do not 
know of a machine in the market, that does not require about 
the same skill to make moulds with it, that is required to 
make them by hand. 

There are plenty of small castings made by machines, that 
most any beginner can make by hand. To say these machines 
are displacing the requirements of skill and experience, is, I 
think, a great over-statement. No one must think that mould- 
ing has not progressed, because our foundries are not full of 
machines. In one sense, our shops are full of machines. They 
do not resemble, I know, what are generally termed machines ; 
nor are they manufactured by others for foundry use. Our ma- 
chines chiefly consist of well-designed flasks, patterns, mould- 



MOULDING -MACHINES. 241 

boards, and riggings, by which the moulder can often treble the 
production that a rigging, apparently the same in appearance 
to a non-experienced person, would do. 

If one desires to know whether or not there has been any 
progress made in expediting work produced in foundries, let 
them have a talk with any old moulder who has travelled much ; 
and I think they will have their eyes opened a little by his 
recital of the day's work that was thought large when he was 
young, compared to that which some moulders turn out at the 
present time. In many cases, the rigging should have the main 
credit for this extra production. I can now call to mind a 
foundry, not one mile from where the author is penning these 
remarks, in which, comparatively but a few years back, ten or 
twelve sewing-machine legs were a day's work : now, in the 
same shop, one man makes from fifty to sixty legs per day, and 
upon his floor no sigo of a moulding-machine is to be seen. 

By the above the author is not throwing cold water upon 
moulding-machines : he simply desires to allay wrong impres- 
sions many have regarding our trade. There is one thing cer- 
tain • machines cannot cause us to work any harder than is now 
generally done. They may often lighten our labor, and assist 
us in procuring accurate and successful results. 

Accompanying this chapter is shown a recent and very novel 
invention, which will no doubt interest many readers. The ma- 
chine is for moulding gear-wheels without the use of a pattern. 
Mr. P. L. Simpson of Minneapolis, Minn., is the inventor; 
and, as he is a practical moulder of long experience, he should 
be competent to give the trade a good practical machine. 

The advantages of such a machine as here shown for mould- 
ing all classes of gears — spur, bevel, and mitre, mortised, or 
worm — without the use of a pattern are too well known to need 
comment. The use of such a machine, especially when but 
few castings are desired, must save a large outlay in patterns, 
also enalile the use of a gear best suited to the purpose, instead 



242 



MOULDING- MACHINES. 



of making a compromise, which is often clone to save the price 
of patterns. 

In using this machine, the moulder simply adjusts the index 
pin to a series of holes ou index cylinder, corresponding tc 
the number of teeth required. The diameter is easily adjusted 




Fig. 91. — Simpson's GearMoulding Machine. 



by turning the handle on end of spindle arm, which moves the 
tooth-lilock carriage to any desired ladius ; stops are then 
adjusted so as to preserve the radius while the wheel is being 
made. R}' a quadrant-slot on tooth-l)look, the latter may be 
turned so as to describe any angle required ou the face of the 



MOULDING MACHINES. 243 

wheel, — bevel, or mitre, as the case maybe. When teetii on 
the tooth-block are rammed up, the moulder moves the spindle- 
arm around until the pin enters the next hole, when the tooth- 
block is again lowered until the stop on the square shaft brings 
it to its proper place. The same operation is repeated until 
the gear is completed. 

Every thing about the machine looks plain, simple, and 
^straightforward ; no worm wheel or compound gearing about it 
to bewilder with their complexity. It is said that any mechanic 
with only limited mechanical ability can easily understand the 
machine, and learn how to work it almost at the first glance. 

The holes on index cylinder are accurately spaced and drilled 
on machines specially made for that purpose. Through this 
agency the gear to be made must leave the sand with special 
accuracy. 



244 EQUIVALENT AREAS FOR POURING-GATES. 



EQUIVALENT AREAS FOR ROUND, SQUARE, 
AND RECTANGULAR POURING-GATES. 

The moulder is often required to connect gates of different 
forms, for the conveyance of metal from the pouring-basin 
into the mould. One part may be formed from a round and 
another from a square or rectangular "gate-stick;" and, 
again, two or more round gates may be desired to convey into 
a mould about same amount of metal per second that one round 
gate would. 

To have the different forms when desired contain like areas, 
is something that heretofore has been done by guess-work. 
The efficiency and value of the following tables cannot be better 
told than by guessing as of old, and then comparing the 
resulting figures with those of the following tables. 

The author would state, that in compiling these tables the 
round gate is taken as the '"base ; " and the sizes of the square 
and rectangular gates seen upon same line in second table con- 
tain nearly the same area as that contained in the round gate. 
Where more than one rectangular gate is required, and it is 
desired tKat they shall contain about an equal area lo a round 
gate, all required is to select the size of round gate, and sub- 
divide the rectangular gate found to have same area into the 
number of gates desired. 

The first table given has for its base the same diameters in 
round gates as appear in the second table : so that, should one 
desire tiuo^ three, or four round gates to have a combined area 
nearly equal to one round gate, he has but to decide upon the 
proper area for the large gate., and then upon the same line ho 



EQUIVALENT AREAS FOR POURING-GATES. 24.J 

will find the number of smaller gates ccjuivalent in area to it ; 
or, sliould it be desired to have one rectangular or square gate 
have an area equivalent to two, three, or four round gates, he 
lias but to consult the lines upon which the same size of round 
aate is found in the " base " or first column of both tables. 



TABLE FOR EQUIVALENT AREAS IN ROUND GATES. ^ 
One \\" gate is equal in area to two l^z'j or three |", or four |" gates. 
One 1|" gate is equal in area to two \\", or ihree 1", or four j" gates. 
One 2' gate is equal in area to two ItV", or three 1t\", or four 1" gates. 
One 2^" gate is equal in area to two If", or three 1^^", or four l\" gates. 
One 2\" gate is equal in area to two 1|", or three Ix'^", or four 1^" gates. 
One 2f" gate is equal in area to two lf| ", or three 1|", or four If" gates. 
One 3" gate is equal in area to two 2\", or three If", or four 1|" gates. 
One 3^" gate is equal in area to two 2^^", or three 1|", or four 1|" gates. 
One -jY gate is equal in area to two 2\", or three 2", or four If" gates. 
One of" gate is equal in area to two 2}^", or three 2^", or four If" gates, 
One 4" gate is equal in area to two 2f|", or three 2^^", or four 2" gates. 
One A\" gate is equal in area to two 3", or three 2x7^", or four 2|" gates. 
One A\" gate is equal in area to two Z^", or three 2f ", or four 2{" gates. 
One 4|" gate is equal in area to two 3f ", or three 2|", or four 2f " gates. 
One 5" gate is equal in area to two 3^", or three 2|", or four 2\" gates. 

' The fractional parts of an inch, as seen by tables, are not carried out ai'y further 
than .Oxg> for '•he reason that the subject docs not call for any closer figures. Therefore, 
the figures given will be understood as being " ue.irly " equal in area. As given, the 
sizes can be readily discerned, and are also applicable to measurement by the shop 
pocket-rules commonly used. 



246 



EQUIVALENT AREAS FOR POURING GATES. 



TABLE FOR EQUIVALENT AREAS IX SQUARE AND RECT 
ANGULAR GATES TO THAT OF ROUND GATES (see note 
on p. 245). 



Round 
Gates. 


Square 
Gates. 


Rectangular 

Gates 

1" Thick. 


Rectangular 

Gates 

li" Thick.. 


Rectangular 

Gates 

2" Thick. 


Rectangulah 

Gates 

2|" Thick. 


1" = 


1" 










U" = 


H" 










iV = 


hV 










n"= 


W = 


1"X 21" 








2" = 


If" - 


l"x 3i" = 


irx 2^" 






2i" = 


2" = 


l"x 4" = 


1|"X 2ii" 






2V = 


'2^" = 


rx 5" = 


H"x 3 A" 






2|«' = 


2i^" = 


1"X Q" = 


1|"X 4" = 


2"X3» 




3" = 


2ii" = 


l"x 7tIs" = 


11 "X 4|" = 


2"X3^» 




S\" = 


21" = 


l"x 8tV' = 


U"X 5|" = 


2"x4t^" = 


2rx3xV' 


3|" = 


3i" = 


l"x 9|" = 


ll"X 6xV'= 


2"x4|'' = 


2i"x3|" 


3f" = 


3tV' = 


1"x11tV' = 


l^"x 7|" = 


2"X5J" = 


2V>^^" 


4" = 


Q 9 « — 
•■'T6 ~ 


l"xl2iV' = 


11" X 81" = 


2"x6i" = 


2\"xb" 


41" = 


3f" = 


l"xi4tV" = 


i^"x gy = 


2"X7V' = 


2^X51" 


w= 


4" ^ 


l"xi5f|" = 


li"xiO|" = 


2"x8'' = 


2|"X6|" 


4f" = 


■ij%" = 


1"X17|" = 


H"xiii|"= 


2"x8|" = 


2^"X7|" 


5" = 


41^6" = 


1"X19|" = 


li"xi3xV'= 


2''X9H" = 


2V'X7|" 



The term "equivalent" used in this chapter does not imply that two 
or more small gates having a combined area equal to one large gate, all 
having like "head pressure," will deliver the same amount of metal per 
second. The flow of metal is retarded by friction, in ratio to the surface 
area it comes in contact with. Now, although four 2^" round gates are 
of equal area to one 5" round gate, we find the frictional resistance to the 
flow of a like "head pressure " through four 2^" round gates to be double 
that generated in one .5" round gate , simply because the combined circum- 
ferences of four 2^" round gates are 31.4160 inches, whereas the circum- 
ference of one 5" roimd gate is 15.7080 inches. As gates are generally 
combined under varying complicated conditions, the tables as given can 
be better practically used than where they are lumbered with the question 
of frictional resistance. 



ERRORS IN FIGURING WEIGHTS OF CASTINGS. ^47 



ERRORS IN FIGURING WEIGHTS OF CASTINGS. 

Some of our iudustrial papers having once given much 
prominence to the rule of dividing the cubic inches contained in 
a casting by 4 in order to find its weight, tlie author thought 
it proper to state in this volume his reason for not having given 
this old rule among the tables contained in vol. i. The reason 
for not adopting this rule is simply because its use will give a 
result which is too light for practice. 

Before adopting the factors laid down in vol. i., the author 
had given the subject numerous tests, not only in carefully 
noting the weight of specially made castings and different 
grades of iron, but also in having pieces planed up to "fine 
measurements," and carefully weighed. 

To show the " shortage " of the product obtained by dividing 
the cubic inches contained in a casting by 4, we will take for an 
example a block measuring one cubic foot. In such a block 
there are 1,728 cubic inches : this, divided by 4, gives a weight 
of 432 pounds. Now, the actual weight of such a block (when 
fed solid, of course), made from ordinary gray iron, is about 
450 pounds. So we find, by figuring with the divisor 4, a 
shortage in weight of 18 pounds for every 450 pounds ; or, for 
every 100 pounds, a shortage of 4 pounds. 

The above shortage is certainly quite a serious item in 
figuring for heavy castings. For example, take a casting 
weighing 10 tons: we find the divisor 4 would give a shortage 
of 800 pounds. 

The author's main reason for here referring to this old rule 
is simply to show its error, and prevent any one from being 
deceived thereby. The factors, as laid down for figuring the; 
weights of castings in vol. i., will, if followed, be found tu 
give answers as near accurate as it is practical to obtain. 



CONTRIBUTED CHAPTERS. 



The following five chapters all originally appeared in "The 
American Machinist;" with the exception of Mr. Mallett's, 
which appeared in "Iron Trade Review and Western Machin- 
ist " of Cleveland, O. The anthor's attention was attracted to 
these articles bj' their novelty and practical ideas, and, think- 
ing they wonld be of much value to the readers of this book, 
he decided to insert them ; and would here tender his thanks to 
the respective writers, especially to Messrs. Masters and Harri- 
son for their kind dedication to him. 



MELTING SMALL QUANTITIES OF IRON. 

By Robert E. MASTERf?, Columbus, Ga. 

The following plan for melting one hiuidred to three hundred 
pounds of iron in a common ladle, I respectfully dedicate to 
Thomas D. West (as one of the odd methods of melting iron) 
for his second volume of "American Foundry Practice." I 
imagine 1 can see a smile illuminating the features of the 
iTiCulders in some of the finely equipped foundries where they 
melt from twenty to fifty tons of iron per day, at the idea of 
melting a couple of hundred pounds ; still there are hundreds 
of small shops where the knowledge of a method for doing so 
would be a source of considerable profit, besides sometimes 
retaining a customer. For instance, Mr. E has a small shop, 
and onl}- casts once or twice a week : a short distance from 
him (perhaps in the same town), D & Co. have a large shop, 
sod cast every day. E has just takeu off a heat, and will not 
248 



-MELTING SMALL QUANTITIES OF IRON. 



:>40 



cast again for several days, when in walks a customer with a 
broken-down job that will require from a hundred to two hun- 




Fig. 92. 

dred and fifty pounds of iron to pour off, and he must have it 
immediately. E doesn't want to lose the job, or run the rislj 



2/)0 MAKING A CURVE!) PIPE FROM A STRAIGHT PATTERN. 

of losing a customer. Now for the plan for doing the job, and 
retaining the customer : Take a common three-hundred pound 
ladle A, Fig. 92, daubed in the ordinary way, and '' lire it up " 
until you have a solid coke or coal fire. Then take a plain 
cylinder B, made of light boiler-iron, 36" long, and of the right 
diameter to fit the top of ladle. This cylinder should have a 
2" hole at one end for tuyere pipe, and should be daubed uj) 
same as a ladle, and dried ready for use. Place the cylinder 
top of ladle, daub up around the joint, and add fuel until you 
have a good bed 6" or 7" above tuyeres. Put on such iron as 
you wish to use, and as much as you need to pour off the piece. 
Nearl}- all small foundries have tuyere pipes that can be de- 
tached from cupola without much trouble, and used for blast 
by adding a small piece of pipe to fit tuyere hole in cylinder. 
After the iron is down, lift off stack, and pour as usual. By 
this method a ladle holding three hundred pounds can be melted 
full of good hot iron in a short time. 



MAKING A CURVED PIPE FROM A STRAIGHT 
PATTERN. 

B/ Olin Scott, Bennington, Vt, 
A SHORT time since, a customer called on me for a piece of 
cast-iron pipe to make a curve of about thirt}' degrees in a pipe 
about three feet in diameter. He wanted it forthwith for a 
repair job. Having no such pattern, nor forms for sweeping- 
such a mould, I made the piece in a creditable manner by the 
means shown in the accompanying sketch. First I got a pat- 
tern for a draw-pulley rim, which was about ^" thick, 6" wide, 
and 36" diameter, having but little draught. Around this pul- 
ley-rim I fitted a set of cores, a section of which is shown at 
€. In the under side of these cores was a recess, to form the 



MAKING A CURVED PirE FROM A STRAIGHT PATTERN. 2.')1 

bottom flanges of the pipe. I also had a piece of a circular 
flange pattern fitted to the outside of the rim pattern, which 
piece of flange pattern was about one-sixth of a circle, and 
was like the required pipe flange. I was then ready to make 
the mould, which was done by excavating in the ground floor 
deep enough for the casting, — say about four feet, — and then 
ramming and grading a true surface at an angle as shown by 




the line a b. This surface was made true in a manner similar 
to that often employed for making true beds in pits, by bedding 
a turned iron pulley-rim in the sand, and using a straight-edge 
over the edge of the pulley rim, and, after the surface was 
finished, drawing out the pulley pattern, and filling the hole 
left by it. 

After truing the surface ab, the 36" pulley pattern was laid 



252 MOULDING PIPES ON END IN GllEEN SAND. 

down, and the cores e, e, set around it, and sand then rammed 
hard, both outside and inside the pullej'-rim, nearly level 
with the top. Then several holes were made with a bar. and 
some strong stakes s, s, s, driven into them. A computation 
showed the pipe would be about 33" long on the short side, 
and about 50" on the long side. The pulley-rim pattern was 
then drawn up 1^" on the side ac, and 1 ' on the side clb, 
when more saud was rammed inside and outside, and the pat- 
tern again drawn up in the same way as before, i.e., 1^" on 
the long side, and 1" on the short side. This operation was 
repeated until the pattern was raised to the line c d, when the 
surface d was levelled off to the top edge of the pattern, and 
the cope staked in position and rammed up. The cope was 
then taken off, and the sand cut out around the outside of 
pattern so as to l)ed the section of flange pattern, and ram it 
level with top of pattern : then the flange section was moved 
along and rammed again until the flange mould was carried 
entirely around the pulley pattern. The pulley pattern was 
then drawn, the cope put* on, and runner built, and it was 
leady for the iron. A thorough venting of the cores e, e, was 
secured l)y a vent rod rammed in the sand over each core, and a 
vent wire was thoroughly used in every direction from the start- 
ing place of the lower end of the mould toward the joint. 

Although the pattern was nearly a straight cylinder, the 
marks of the pattern when it was drawn were scarcely per- 
ceptible upon the casting. 



MOULDING PIPES ON END IN GREEN SAND. 

By James Mallett, Cleveland, O. 

A FEW 3'^ears ago, a Arm in this city received an order for 
several hundred feet of cast-iron pipe to be used for ventilating 



MOULDING PIPES ON END IN GllEEN SAND. 



253 



purposes. The pipe was to be 20" in diameter, |" thick, and 
made in sections varying from three feet six inches to seven 
feet. Mr. P. L. Simpson, who had charge of tlie sliop, con- 
ceived the idea of moulding the pipe on end ; for this purpose 




•'^•^.^'':^>V\W^^^''.'•.:ic•;A1'.' 



Fig. 95. 

an ordinary pulley-ring, of the size and thickness required, was 
selected for a pattern. A hole was dug in the floor large 
enough to enable the moulder to work on the outside of the 
pattern when I'ammiug-up ; a substantial wood stake was drivei: 



254 MOULDING PIPES ON END IN GREEN SAND. 

firmly into the centre of the hole ; a level bed formed around it. 
upon which were placed the cores that formed the flange ot 
socket, as the case might V)e, at the bottom end of the pipe. 
The length of the pipe wa.^ ^hen marked on the stake above, 
tlie pattern placed upon the cores, four round sticks placed 
around the stake to help bring off the vent of the core, and 
sand rammed firmly inside and outside of the ring to the top ; 
then a vent-wnre was used freely, the ring and the sticks were 
drawn up about five inches, and the ramming continued to the 
top as before ; the vent-wire was again used inside and outside 
of the ring, after which it and the four vent-sticks were drawn 
another five inches. 

This process was continued until the mould was as long a? 
required ; the pattern was levelled each time it was drawn ; the 
sticks were also drawn each time so as not to extend below the 
pattern and so endanger the core. Some rods were placed at 
intervals in the core when ramming, in order to strengthen and 
secure it. When the pattern had been drawn to the required 
height, a joint was made around it on which to set the covering 
cores : the pattern was then drawn about six or seven inches 
higher, and the core rammed up so much higher than the out- 
side ; the pattern and vent sticks were then drawn out, and 
the covering cores, with gates filed in them, were placed on the 
joint against the body-core ; the pouring-gate on top was then 
made up, and the mould was ready to cast. 

When there was a flange on the top end, we formed it some- 
times by means of a segment worked around the top of the 
l)attern before drawing it out ; but, in most cases, we used 
cores like those shown in Fig. 95, and marked c and c respec- 
tively, as they could be adapted to either end by simply revers- 
ing their position. They were made in segments one-sixth of 
the total circumference required, that size being found the most 
convenient. When sockets were cast on any of the pipes, the 
cores to form them were made on tlie same general principle, 
and, for obvious reasons, placed at the bottom of the mould. 



MOULDING PU'ES ON END IN GREEN SAND. 25? 

The advantages attending this metliod of moulding thin pipes 
are too apparent to any one acquainted with the trade to require 
more than a passing notice. Ordinaril}', by the old method, 
considerable expense and delaj' would be incurred in making a 
pattern and core-box, not to mention the provision of large and 
substantial flasks in which to do the moulding subseqllentl3^ 
By careful ramming, a mould made in this way is safer than by 
the horizontal plan, as there is no danger of a run-out, of hav- 
ing the core rise or sink, or of "cold-shut" if the iron be a 
little dull. 

By this plan, also, two lengths of pipe can be made in the 
time taken to mould one by the old method, and the moulds 
take up less room. Of coui'se, the moulds cannot be l)lacked 
and sleeked ; but Ijy using fine sand, and ramming regularly, a 
good surface may be obtained, if desired. In this case, the 
castings were not required to be smooth ; so long as they were 
light and solid, they answered the purpose. 

A good plan to form the pouring-gate is to take a pulley- 
ring about five inches larger than the ring used for the pattern, 
and when the covering cores, with the gates filed m them, are 
in place, to put the larger ring on them, and make up the sand 
all around the outside as high as required ; tlien cut away two 
places in which to i)our the iron from the bull ladles, draw out 
the ring, and the mould is ready to i)Our. This kind of gate 
has the advantage of being (piickly made, Ijesides being cleaner 
and more easily choked than a gate cut out with a trowel as 
oidinarily. This plan of moulding thin pipes has l)een adopted 
by other firms ; but to many, the idea will be perfectly new. 
Of course, the deeper the pattern is, the Ijctter, as there is less 
danger of ramming the mould in or the core out than with a 
shallow pattern ; besides, the pattern can be drawn more each 
time than the other, and leave a more even surface both inside 
and out. 

Fig. 94 represents a plan of the mould when ready to cast ; 



25G THREE WAYS OF MAKING AN AIR-VESSEL. 

Fig. 95 a. central vertical section of the same. When the pipes 
are to be long, it is best to use some round iron flasks or rings 
in which to ram up the lower end of the mould, as the strain is 
very great, and will cause the casting to be much heavier than 
required unless properly secured. 



THREE WAYS OF MAKING AN AIR-VESSEL. 

By Robert Watson, Cleveland, O. 

In making a casting like the one shown in the engraving, 
three things suggest tiiemselves to the moulder : First, to make 
it; second, to make it well ; and, third, to make it at the least 
expense, and at the same time have a good job of it. There 
are three plans represented in the engraving for making this 
air-chamber ; which, it may l)e remarked, is of a size not often 
required, the dimensions being 60" x 48" and 2" thick. The 
moulder who made this particular casting made it in loam, by 
the first plan represented. This is a plan considered by some 
old-fashioned, out of date ; while others maintain it is the safest 
plan, although a rather slow one. I will explain the three 
plans, and leave it for the reader to judge which is the best. 

In making this casting by the "first plan," we build up to 
A and B, and after loaming and sweeping smooth it is neces- 
sary to wait till the loam is stiff enough to bear the weight of 
the core. By drying it with a fire-basket, a little time can be 
saved. Then it is blacked with a mixture of charcoal-blacking 
and water, for the purpose of making it part clean. The 
sweep is then changed so as to sweep the required thickness, 
which, in smaller castings, is often done with green sand 
dampened with clay water; but I doubt if this mntciinl would 
be strong enough to sustain a core o±" this size. To be on the 



THREE WAYS OF MAKING AN AIK VESSEL 



257 



safe side, it is better in this case to use loam and brick splinters, 
and to thoroughly dry with the fire-basket. Then a coat of 




J. parting blacking is put on, and it will part cleaner if a coat 
of parting-sand is s^jrinkled on top of it. 



258 THREE WAYS OF MAKING AN AIR-VESSEL 

To build the core, a plate witli prickers on it is used to form 
the bottom, as shown at E. There are different ways of bed- 
ding this phiti^. I have seen them l>edtled cokl m a iiody of 
loam, but this requires a long time to dry hard enough to lifi 
clean when the core is taken out of its bed. A better plan i> 
to heat the plate, and have holes in it in which to pack piece- 
of bricks and loam up level with the plate. I think a Ix'tter 
way still would l.>e to turn the plate bottom upwards, and loosely 
pack in bricks with building-loam, freely using fine coke, up to 
within 1" or H" of the ix)ints of the prickers, then fill up witli 
loam hi a rough state. When dry and ready for use, it is neces- 
sary to scratch the surface of the loam with a wire-brush, and 
rub ou a little soft loam ; then lower it on a loam bed, say from 
^" to I" thick. The remainder of the core can then l>e built 
with confidence in the final result. A sweep has to be put on 
the spindle, and used to fonn the upper portion of the core, 
from the joint ^1 and B; space must be allowed in the centre- 
for the lifting and blocking gear, as shown at H. After loam- 
ing aud sweeping this part of the core, the sweep must lie 
changed for another to make the proper thickness. 

I have seen the same operations gone through with as were 
with the bottom, — drying the core, putting on parting-blacking, 
loam, brick splintere. etc. ; but all this in the case of the core 
is quite unnecessary. Instead of loam for the thickness, use 
green sand darai^ened slightly with clay water. Press this on 
firmly with the hands, and sleek a little with the trowel after 
the sweep has pro^ierly shaped it ; no parting-blacking is re- 
quired. Before sleeking it, if pax'ting-sand is sprinkled on. it 
will assist in getting a clean parting. 

You can now start without delay to build up against it to 
form the outside, after putting on the parting-ring. "Wheu at 
the top, if you have no sweep, it is necessary to have a ring 
to form the flange : the job is then so far complete. After 
marking iu several places, great care is required to part this off, 



THREE WAiS OF MAKING AS AIS-TES5EL 259 

as the moold is green and easily dannged. This port shoold 
be dressed and Maekened first, as il nmst be dried ; vfaen thib 
is dnring, the upper half oi the eore can be drssed and black- 
ened, then pot the e(^»e part back in place. 

The Inamed top-fdate JTis plaeedon the tt^ fortiie purpose 
of Uftii^ the cote out of its bed. I hare seen two bobs used 
or lifting the eme. the bolts boi^ sctewed l^ht on the top <^ 
Jie plate. The positiMi ot these bolts is shonm at tiie i^ht 
3f H. This plan vas not satirfactoiT, and fax from bdi^ safe, 
as it is iraposdUe to aexemr the bolts so as to hare eqoal strain 
on them : thoefore the orare is liable to more, when free from 
its bed. by the ^<Mt to eome to an eqoilibriam. If it does 
more, tb&e is a poor efaanee ol adjostii^ it with two bcdts. 
A better way would be to use three bcAbs, thai it can readily 
be adjusted. By harin^ a stroi^ pieee ol* iron alongside each 
boh^ ertpnding &om the ocMte-friate and t^itly weired, the 
bolts could be t^itened to smt, with~obnfidaftoe diat the core 
will not move from its ptoper place. This is shown to the 1^ 
of^. 

If the top-plate is not strong enoogjh, it voold be a good plan 
to nse a tfaree-l^ged evoes, as reptesented at L. This, by bear- 
ing on the points of the legs as wcO as s.t the centre, would 
stTpigthfn the {date. 

Two ways oi making joints are sho^ 3. Some 

make a berelled jnnt, as at £. the bev^„-^ .^ : ^itii^ as a 
guide in lowoii^. Th^ is generally >ati$f:ibtory when there 
is a good foundation. There is at 5 ir^Oing a poor 

dat joint bom the piickeis not li^ . . ..^ ; also, when 

closing, there is danger of cmshii^ part, if not closed 

entirely fair, which wiD spoil or i ~ . r^etii^. The 

lerrf joint at JL is far better. Th.: ^: _i_; -iih two plates, 
which makes the joint iron and iron. It can be guided tngethei- 
by outside marks. A better way cf guiding would be to hare 
pins, as shown at X. To make these plates, liaTe a bed with 



2G0 THREE WAYS OP MAKING AN AIR-VESSEL, 

the size and form marked ou it, and high enough to cast two 
phites. Before casting the first plate, set the guide-pins so tlie 
plate will have a good hold of them : the upper portions of 
these pins should be oiled, and a good coat of parting-sand put 
on them. After the first plate is cast, put on a good coat of 
parting-sand to prevent the plates uniting. There can be three 
or four lugs cast on the upper plate, as shown at A, for the 
purpose of wedging chaplets. 

In this plan, there are shown three ways of running the cast- 
ing, as at S, F, and W. The runner at S is almost sure to cut 
and scab the core and mould. The runner at I'' is not so bad, 
but is open in a less degree to the same objection. I can with 
confidence recommend the runner W. 

Looking at the "second plan" in the engraving, the core 
and the mould are made separate. The bottom of the core is 
formed with a sweep JSf. When this is dry and turned over, it 
is laid on a bed prepared for it ; care being taken to have the 
plate level, and placed centrally with the sweep. To insure 
its proper location, a nick may be made in the sweep that forms 
the bottom, to correspond with the top sweep, as shown at 
2, 2, 2. 

For supporting the mould, a plate should l)e Iniilt in its upper 
portion to bolt to the bottom plate, as shown at 4. In the 
"third plan," the mould is made in three parts; the bottom 
wlien finished is divided into two sections, one of which is 
shown at R. The four lugs are to clamp the sections together 
by. Tlie top part can be made by having a plate with prickeis 
on it, as shown at M. For closing by, the sweep should lie 
made to make an outside mark to correspond with the under 
part, as shown at XX. 

Although the third plan seems to be the easiest and simplest, 
it is seldom adopted, for the reason that the bottom being the 
weakest part, or the part most likely to give way from over- 
pressure, it is essential to provide for its being sound and solid ; 



A METHOD OF MOULDING GEAR WHEELS. 2Cl 

and the only way to do this is by casting the bottom down as 
shown in the first and second plans. 



A METHOD OF MOULDING GEAR WHEELS. 

By William H. Harrison, Braintree, Mass. 

As a sort of supplement to the most excellent series of 
articles which Mr. West has been writing on the subjects of 
Moulding and Casting, I venture to present the following 
method of moulding heavy gear wheels, which I believe was 
original with myself, and which I have faund exceedingly use- 
ful in a great many instances. It is really a rough substitute 
for a moulding-machine, and like a moulding-machine possesses 
the merit of making wheels which are tolerable approximations 
to truth. The method of making wheels b}' using short cores 
on which the teeth are moulded, and spacing them around in a 
pit, is one not to be tolerated ; for, although a thing may be 
made tolerably satisfactory to the moulder, the application of 
the machinist's calipers will show that the teeth and spaces 
vaiy in thickness from the difficulty in setting the cores, while 
the cores themselves change their shape from the shape of the 
core-box in handling and drying. 

There are mill-owners who imagine they have accomplished 
a good work when they insist upon having the gears turned, 
thus truing the points of the teeth ; forgetting that the points 
of the teeth, even in the most perfect work, are not intended 
to touch any thing. It is, however, a somewhat melancholy 
sight to the man who bears the expense, to observe one of the 
old-fashioned boring-mills, or lathes of light weight, nibbling 
off a little cut, and the machine jumping from tooth to tooth, 
as though trying to make time between the cuts. 



262 



A METHOD OF MOULDING GEAR WHEELS. 



Fig. 97 represents a section through the sand of the foundry 
floor. ^ ^4 is a vertical spindle, tapered at the lower end, 
and fitted to a tapered hole in the base plate. C is a casting, 
having bored holes carefully fitted, so as to slide freely upon 
the spindle. A board is bolted to C, which levels the floor on 




Fig. 97. 

the line a &, and leaves the mound c, if required, to form the 
boss. The cope is then placed, and rammed up as usual with 
a piece of tubing or gas-pipe slipped over the spindle to allow 
the cope to be lifted without disturbing the sand. The cope 
being lifted and swung to one side, another board is used, 



A METHOD OF MAKING GEAR WIIEEES. 2fi3 

which sweeps a pit in the green saud of the floor to tlie shape 
dcfg. The part / is for the boss at the lower side, and ^ 
is the core print. The casting C is now lifted from the spindle, 
and the index plate D D placed and secured by the set screw. 
This index plate is smoothly turned, and while in the lathe a 
number of circles are struck with a fine-pointed tool. These 
circles should be graduated, and the holes drilled on a gear- 
cutter, or, as the English say, a " dividing-engine ;" but in my 
case the dividing engine was a sharp-eyed apprentice, armed 
with a pair of compasses, a hammer, and a centre punch, in 
preference to the pattern-maker with his glasses and lead-pencil. 

The board F, having the pattern G attached, is now bolted 
to the casting C, and slipped down upon the spindle, and the 
point / adjusted so as to drop into the centre punch marks 
i, I, i, etc., and allow the lower end of the pattern to come 
down upon the bottom of the pit on the level c. The green 
sand forming the space between two teeth is then rammed, and 
the board i7. Fig. 9H, laid on with a ten-pound weight on top 
of the teeth to hold the sand down, when the pattern is being 
drawn, after which the arm is shifted to the next hole in the 
index plate. It is well to give this pattern some draught ; not 
to make it lift easier, but because the straining of the lower 
part of the casting, i)articularly when the face of the gear is 
wide, tends to make that part larger. 

It is also well not to allow too much for contraction ; in case 
of these heav}- wheels, ■^" per foot I have found ample. 

After the teeth are formed, the spindle and attachments may 
be removed, of course leaving the plate B in the sand until 
after the casting is made. The arm cores and centre core may 
be placed in the ordinary manner, being made of dry sand ; or 
in some cases where the gear is large, and the arms plain, the 
coi'e box may be laid in the mould, and rammed up with green 
sand, in the exact location where it is required to be. 

The cope may now be put in place, and weighted as usual in 



5264 



A METHOD OP MAKING GEAR WHEELS. 



work of this character. It will be observed that in Fig. 98 the 
teeth are shown of the involute form, which I adopted some 
years ago as the best form for rough wheels. They certainly 




Fig. 98. 



are the strongest as to form, theoretically; and for smooth 
running, some of these wheels made with this rough apparatus 
as coarse as 7i" pitch on the pitch circle, I have never seen 
equalled by any gears moulded from a pattern. 



CUPOLAS AND MELTING IRON. 



SMALL CUPOLAS. 

Whex trade is brisk, nearly all machinery shops cast every 
day ; when dull, many are more likely to cast once a week. 
Whether trade is dull or brisk, castings are wanted in a hurry ; 
often, the duller the trade, the greater the hurry. Some want 
them even before they are ordered : they think a casting 
should be had the same as a piece of forging or carpenter- 
work. 

Waiting for a small casting in dull times, is often caused 
through waiting for a decreased force to get up enough work to 
pay for running off a heat. The expense of running off light 
heats in some shops is very heavy, the cost being regulated by 
the size of cupola : the smaller the cupola, the less the ex- 
pense. 

Small cupolas are not only good for running light heats, but 
are valuable for testing our modern brands of pig-iron. Pig- 
iron is something of a mystery, and to find its qualities it gen- 
erally requires to be worked. To melt a sample of pig-iron in 
a large cupola, is not always practicable, from the fact that 
castings are made of mixtures; and, even would circumstances 
allow the ^rst charge to be all of one brand of pig, there is 
little assurance of its being entirely free of upper mixtures. 
With a small cupola, and thirt}' to fifty cents' worth of liicl, 
three or four hundred-weight of pig can be melted, loith an 
assurance of the casting being all the jyroduct of that special pig. 

Small cupolas are often as useful in large shops as in small 
ones. In the whole country, there might be found a dozen large 
shops having small cupolas, and out of the dozen there might 

265 



2Q() SMATJ CUPOLAS. 

be four that have been used over a dozen times. It is ver}^ 
eas}' to build small cupolas, but something of a job to success- 
fully run them. Notwithstanding, the principle of melting is 
the same in a small cupola as in a large one. 

For manipulation in handling, there is not the room m small 
cupolas that there is in large ones ; and on this account the 
small cupola has not been very successfully used. 

There are two styles of small cupolas in use. The first is 
upon the same plan as the common round, straight cupola ; and 
the second is made so as to be turned upside down, for con- 
venience in cleansing and dumping. Knowing the disadvan- 
tages attending the successful running of small cupolas, 
ranging from 12" to 18", I have designed, as shown, an original 
plan that I think will fully meet the requirements. 

The cupola here shown will occupy a space about four feet 
square. The working portion is hung by two cast-iron trun- 
nions, having a wrought-irou 1|" pin cast in each. The trun- 
nions work in a sliding rest, one of which, a face view, is seen 
aX B A, in back view of cupola (Fig. 99). 

An end view of the slides is shown in the side view. The 
plan of the slides is seen in small cut at the top. Shown in 
back and side views, under the sliding rests, are friction wheels. 
These slides are held in place b}- the standards SS, shown 
bolted to the columns. By a slight push, the working-portion 
of cupola can be brought out from below the upper portion 
or stack. A pin inserted tlirough P to K prevents any further 
sliding of the rests. After this the steadying bars IIH, shown 
in the plan as well as in back view, are removed. The cupola 
can now be turned to a horizontal position. To prevent the 
slides from running out of their roller bearings when moving 
the cupola, the slides A B should have a projection on each 
end, as seen below the end at K. As the working-portion of 
the cupola is only four feet long, by the moans of the drop 
bottom, a man can reach and see all parts of the inside, there- 




Fifr. 99. 



SMALL CUrOLAS. 267 

by giving; hirn a good opportunity to thoroughly pick out and 
cleanly daub it up. This is almost an iinpossibility in the in- 
stance of many small cupolas. With this jjart of the work, 
rightly and handily performed, lies the main secret of successful 
melting in small cupolas. 

In picking out and daubing up small cupolas, care and clean- 
liness must be exercised. The lining should be kept as smooth 
and even as possible : any roughness has a tendency to make 
the charges hang up. It is an easy matter for iron to become 
wedged in such small cupolas. The daubing would better 
stand a long heat if it were dried, all cracks filled, and then 
given a coat of good blacking, thereby making it as smooth 
and clean as the linings of ladles ; but for ordinary heats this 
extra work is not necessary. 

Not only is it essential that the cupola should be clean, but 
the iron and fuel should be clean as well. Dirt creates slag, 
and slag could soon bung up an}' cupola. The slag-hole, if 
properly managed, greatly mitigates the disastrous effect of 
slag. Dirt in any form is detrimental to successful melting. 
With large cupolas one may be somewhat careless and unclean, 
but with small ones attention to these points must be given. 

The thickness of lining for small cupola can range from H" 
up to 4^". The 1^" lining is obtained by daubing the shell with 
three-fourths of good fire-clay mixed with one-fourth of sharp 
sand. To mix them well, they should be boiled together in a 
kettle. Common cla}' could be used, but in the end the fire- 
clay would be cheapest. A 2^" or 4|" lining is made with fire- 
brick. For small cupolas, intended for frequent use, the 2^" 
thickness of lining is about as thin as should be put in. For 
daily use the 4^" lining would be preferal^le, as this thickness 
would last longer than a thinner one. To use a 4^" lining to 
make the 12" cupola, the shell of cupola would, of course, 
rf'quire to be larger than shown. 

The working-portion of cupola shown has, in the length of 



268 SMALL CUPOLAS. 

four feet, a taper of 2". This is a point I am aware is not 
much practised, which is another reason for ill workings. 
Small cupolas are better for having a taper, as it assists in pre- 
venting the stock from becoming wedged or hung up. 

In constructing the shell for small cupolas, there are Beverai 
ways in which it may be done. One is to make it out of all 
boiler-iron ; and another, by placing cast-iron rings on top of 
each other, tying them together with bolts. A third plan is 
to bind vertically placed cast-iron slabs or staves with wrought- 
iron rings ; and a fourth, to make a square shell by bolting 
together cast-iron plates. The fifth, a "crank's" plan, is to 
line up a flour-barrel. 

In the cupola shown, the bottom is made of cast-iron |" thick. 
From the tuyeres up, boiler-iron is used. The slides A B are 
of wrought-iron, and the platform plate of cast-iron. The 
plan of tuyeres shown is one that will evenly distribute the 
blast. At 1, 2, 3, and 4, are peep barring-holes, which may 
be plugged, as shown, with wooden stoppers, or they can be 
closed with swinging slides. Numbers 6 and 7 are nozzles to 
attach leather, rubber, or sheet-iron blast-pipe to. The pipes 
must be made adjustable, so as to allow the cupola to be 
removed. The tuyere boxes, seen at it i? in back view of 
cupola, are independent of the outer shell, and are set in when 
lining up. These tuyeres, to work well in the three sizes men- 
tioned, should have an area of from twenty to twenty-five per 
cent of that contained in the cupola. For the cupola shown, 
use four tuyeres l|"x4". The milder, with proper volume, 
the blast can be admitted into small cupolas, the longer can 
they be made to run ; and this is especially so where all coke is 
the fuel used. 

The construction of the tuyeres as shown is, of course, 
more expensive than were nothing but two round tuyeres used. 
Some small cupolas have the blast thus directly admitted. It 
is a cheap and ready plan ; but I think the plan given is the 



SMALL CUPOLAS. 269 

best, as admitting the air as shown breaks its direct force, and 
admits it in a much more even and a milder manner, so tliat 
it does not have such a bunging effect as it does when passing 
directly from the blast-pipe into the cupola. The blast press- 
ure for cupolas ranging from 12" up to 18", using all coke 
for fuel, should be from two up to four ounces ; with coal and 
coke, four to six ounces ; using all coal, from five to seven 
ounces. 

The stacks for small cupolas need not be continuous, as for 
large ones. After a foot or two above the top of chargmg 
door, they may be led into the stack of a larger cupola, or into 
a chimney. 

Between the cupola cuts, is shown the manner of charging. 
In chargmg the working-portion of the cupola, it would be 
better to liave it slide out to come in under the platfoim hole 
X. This would give a good chance to proj^erly and conven- 
iently charge. After charging, it can be pushed back, locked, 
and the portion of cupola above platform charged. The half- 
inch of space between the platform and underneath portion of 
the cupola could he stopped up with clay, to prevent the blaze 
from coming out. The platfonn as seen is but a plain plate. 
As shown it would be too weak to carry much of a load, and 
also there is ncjthing to stop stock from rolling off. To meet 
both these requircuicnts, it would be a good plan to have a rib 
say iV'xO" east all around the plate; and where It crosses 
the hole X it could he given an arch shape, so as to allow the 
cupola to turn over. Still more to strengthen it at X, there 
might be a complete ring cast on the plate, just large enough 
for the cupola to fill. If this were not thought sufficient, still 
another rib could be cast on the plate on its under side, below 
the place where the pig pile is seen ; and to add support, which 
might be needed should a veiy heavy stack be used, the plate 
could l)e cast thicker than shown, and brackets carried from 
the columns up to it. 



270 SMALL CUPOLAS. 

The bed's weight of fuel, given in cut, is intended to place 
the bed about 13" above the top of tuyere. With trials made 
of coal and coke in the shop, the given weights would bring it 
about as shown. As but few cupolas are exactly alike in meas- 
urement, or fuels of the same specific gravity, instead of giving 
the bed weight, it would be more reliable to state the height 
which the top of bed should be above the tuyere. For a heat 
of 900 pounds, having all coal in bed, it should be 12" above 
tuyere. Above 900 pounds, add from 1" to 3" to height of 
bed. If all coke is used, have bed 18" above tuyeres ; and for 
a heat of 1,000 pounds or over, add from 2" to G" to height. 
Using all coke between charges, continue as shown. Should 
all coal be used, double the weight of fuel and iron in charging, 
which would be 20 pounds of fuel instead of 10, and 250 
l)Ouuds instead of 125 of iron. The fuel should be small size, 
and the pigs broken into four or five pieces, and scrap in like 
proportion. 

The charges for a 15" cupola could be made as follows : On 
a coal bed charge 350 pounds of iron, after which, with coke 
for fuel, have charges, 17 pounds of coke and 200 pounds of 
iron. With all coal, double the charges. 

The charges for 18" cupola : on coal bed, 500 pounds of 
iron ; coke between charges of 300 pounds of iron, 25 pounds. 
For coal charges, double those above. If, in any of the three 
sizes, coke is used in place of coal for the bed, then make the 
first charge of iron no heavier than those given for the upper 
charges. Should the iron come too dull for very light castings, 
add to height of bed from 2" to 6", and between charges two, 
four, to six pounds of fuel. By using coal for the bed, the 
cupola will melt more iron than if coke is used, as the coal will 
stand the effects of the blast better than coke. By slagging the 
cupola, it can often be made to melt near as much again iron 
as wliere no attention is paid to slagging out. The capacity of 
a 12" cupola, when slagged out, is about 1,500 pounds; thai 



•SMALL CUPOLAS. 271 

of a 15" cupola, 2,000 ; and an 18" cupola, 2, 500 pounds. 
With excellent management the above figures might be ex- 
ceeded. I would here state, that, alUiough 1 have shown the 
cut of a 12" cupola, for daily practical working I would not 
recommend the use of one less than 15". 

The reason for placing the few pounds of coke below the 
coal shown in the bed is more for the purpose of assisting in 
kindling the coal, than for saving expense. Coal is harder to 
kindle than coke, and in small cupolas the difficulty is greater 
tluin in larger ones. 

The constiuctiou shown is in principle applicable to any of 
the three sizes mentioned. For a 15" cupola, the tuyeres should 
be increased from 4"x 1^", to 3|"x3J", and for an 18" cupola 
4"x4". Also for a 15" or 18" cupola, the slide bars and plat- 



^ 




Fig. 100. 

form should be stronger than shown for the 12" cupola. The 
tuyeres could be 4" lower, were all coal used ; but for coke 
the height given is required. A cheaper cupola could be con- 
structed, but for cheapness in the end I think the one here 
represented would be satisfactory. 

An idea which it might be well to express for one who was 
willing to forego the convenience allowed by having the cupola 
slide out under X to be charged up, is simply to dispense with 
this arrangement, and, in order to turn the cupola over and 
back, to let a part of the l)ody — which is here shown to be 
above the platform — project below sufficiently to be cut so as 
to form a slanting joint, instead of being parallel as now shown. 



272 SMALL CUPOLAS. 

If this were done, the two parts would form a joint something 
similar to that seen at K, Fig. 100. In thus allowing the upper 
body to project through the platform A, it would require to be 
held up by means of brackets E^ and by this plan the hole X 
would not be required. 

While upon this subject, it might be well to suggest an idea 
with reference to running large cupolas for constant light heats. 
In many cases, were the cupola lined up so as to make it 
smaller, much expense in fuel would be saved. For example, 
a 48" cupola could, at a small outlay, be lined up to 30" ; then 
when business warranted it, the false lining could be taken out, 
and most of the fire-brick saved for periodical American busi- 
ness depressions. 



COKE AND COAL IN MELTING IRON. 27S 



COKE AND COAL IN MELTING IRON. 

There often having been some encomiums upon tlie merits 
of coke for melting iron, and none for coal, it seems to me that 
some, through short acquaintance with coke, were a little too 
enthusiastic to show up oue good fuel at the expense of 
another. I do not deny that coke is a good fuel to melt with : 
nevertheless, coal is also good, and in some ways superior, for 
which I would not like to see its use abandoned. I hope to 
here show wherein the merits of each fuel lie, and to present a 
few ideas that may assist those wishing to change from coal to 
coke. 

The merits claimed for coke are as follows : First, that it will 
melt faster than coal; second, that it requires less blast pres- 
sure; third, that it is a cheaper fuel than coal; and, fourth, 
that it contains less impurities^ and will make softer castings. 

The first three are certainly true ; but regarding the fourth, 
it chiefly depends upon the amount of sulphur in the respec- 
tive fuels. 

Either through design, or lack of observation, there seem to 
be three important points in the use of coke and coal that were 
not rightly brought out. One is regarding the life and heat cf 
the metal ; another, the length of heats ; the third, qualities 
required in melting heavy iron. The foundrymen in my sec- 
tion of the country have had experience with coke for a loug 
time ; and I have yet to hear any of them say that coke, on an 
average, is better than coal for making hot metal, for length of 
heats, or for soft castings. To run long heats, and have metal 
keep its life, is a very important factor with man}' foundries ; 
such, for instance, as those doing heavy work, where the first 



27i COKE AND COAL IN MELTING IRON. 

five or ten tons melted have to stand in a ladle from one to two 
hours, waiting for more iron to be melted or another ladle to be 
filled. There is a notable feature — that of the life of liquid 
iron — that many shops may not notice, as with them the metal 
may be said to be no sooner out of the cupola than it is poured 
into the moulds. I am a firm believer in melting iron "hot," 
as I know it to be a fact that better castings can be made by 
so doing. 

The length of heats has in my practice been increased by 
using coal with coke ; and in this section many foundries mix 
coal with coke, in order to do clean cupola work, and produce 
hot iron. That a cupola will run longer with a mixture of 
Lehigh coal and coke, is admitted by many foundrymen to be a 
fact. 

In order to make my subject plain, and to show ways of 
charging, the accompanying cuts (Figs. 101, 102) are inserted. 
The cupolas, as shown, are charged for ordinary heats. To 
run at their full capacity, about ten pounds more fuel should be 
added to each charge. 

To commence with, I will state that the description of the 
various modes of melting here given are not of test heats got up 
to show how fast melting can be done, or to present the two- 
sided question of economy in fuel. The heats described are 
the average practical workings of a few common, plain, round 
cupolas in Cleveland. The Cuyahoga, Viaduct, Eclipse, and 
Globe Works have kindly allowed me to publish their ways of 
melting.' 

The Cuyahoga and Globe Works make heavy steam-engine 
and machinery castings ; the Eclipse does a large business in 
house work and general jobbing castings ; while the Viaduct 
Foundry makes a specialty of vapor oil stoves and light jobbing 
castings. These four specialties cover about all ordinary 
foundry castings, so that nearl}' all can apply one or the other 
to their own class of castings made. 

' The Cu^ ahoga and Viaduct foundries went out of business abput ]S)^8, 



COKE AND COAL IN MELTING IRON. 2i.) 

The Cuyahoga and Globe Works each has two cupohis ; 
and, their smallest ones being of about the same size, I havo 
chosen them to show their practice of using coke and coal. The- 
Globe Works' cupola is charged with all coke ; the Cuyahoga, 
with coke and coal. The charges of iron, as shown, are con- 
tinued to the end of the cupola's capacity. The Globe Works' 
blast pressure is five ounces, obtained from a Sturtevant No. 8 
fan. Time of melting, when using all coke, three and a half 
tons per hour. 

The Cuyahoga's blast pressure is seven ounces, obtained from 
a Root rotary-blower No. 5. Time of melting, with coal and 
coke, three tons per hour. 

The Eclipse Works' mode of charging, with all coke, for a 
heat of seven tons, is, 700 pounds of coke for the bed and 1,200 
pounds of iron for the first charge, the balance of iron charges 
being all 800 pounds. Between the charges, 95 pounds of 
coke. The cupola is 35" inside diameter, having four round 
h" tuyeres, about 18" from the sand-bed to the centre. The 
height of charging doors, bottom to foundation plate, is nine 
feet ; blast pressure, seven ounces, obtained from a No. 7 
Sturtevant fan. Time of melting, 6,500 pounds per hour. 

The Viaduct Foundry's mode of charging, with coal and coke, 
for a heat of six tons, is, 738 pounds of coke and 400 pounds 
of coal for the bed; first charge of iron, 1,800 pounds. The 
balance of iron charges, 1,200 pounds ; fuel between them, 123 
pounds of coke and 25 pounds of coal. The cupola is 38" 
Inside diameter, and has four oblong tu^'eres of the dimensions 
siiowu at right of cupola (Fig. 102), their height from sand- 
bottom being about 16". The height of charging-door from plate 
is eleven feet ; blast pressure, ten ounces, No. 5 Sturtevant fan. 
Time of melting, 6,500 pounds per hour. As a general thing, 
in the charging of this cupola, there is not any fuel used be- 
tween the last charges. 

For a flux, the Cuyahoga Works use fluor spar. lu using 



276 COKE AND COAL IN MELTING IRON. 

this flux, we shovel about twelve pounds on the top of each 
charge, with the exception of the first two or three charges. 

In melting with coke, the fire does not require to be started 
as early, simply because coke does not require as long a time 
to kindle as coal. The idea of time for kindling should be to 
allow sufficient to have the fuel all on fire before iron is 
charged. Any longer than this is only a waste of fuel, and a 
detriment to successful melting. The draught, and kinds of 
kindling used, often govern the time of starting fires. The 
bed, when all coke, should be from 6" to 10" higher than where 
coal is used. The charges of iron should not average much 
over one-half the Aveight of the charges when coal is used ; or, 
in plainer language, where a charge consists of 2,400 pounds of 
iron with all coal, with all coke it should be about 1 ,400 pounds. 
As successful melting with coke cannot be done with low tuy- 
eres as with coal. As a general thing, coke melting requii'es 
tuyeres to be from 14" up to 30" above the bottom plate, or 
about one-third higher than for coal. I do not mean by this 
that coke melting cannot be done with low tuyeres, but that 
with high tuyeres longer heats will he obtained. 

I recall here a case, where all coke l)eing the fuel, the tuyeres 
had to be raised in order to successfully melt the required 
amount of iron. The shop in which this occurred was the 
Cleveland Rolling Mill Company's foundry, Newburgh, O. 
Working there at that time, I carefully noted the results of the 
change. The size of cupola was 44" inside diameter ; charging- 
door eight feet six inches from the bottom plate. The tuyeres 
were originallj'^ about 20" high ; and by the time fourteen tons 
of iron were melted, the bottom had generally to be dropped 
This became a nuisance, as the shop would often be left witi. 
moulds unpoured. The tuyeres were finally raised to 30" high, 
and altered from flat tuyeres similar to one shown in cupola, 
Fig. 102, to six 5" round tuyeres. About 7" below the tuyeres 
a slag-hole was inserted. With these changes the cupola would 
euccessfully melt twenty tons and upwards. 




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COKE AND COAL IX MELTING IRON. 277 

In melting for machine or heavy castings, the iron is gener^ 
?;lly nllowed to accumulate before tapping-out. This accumula- 
tion Uiay cause raising and lowering of fuel (that is, if tuyeres 
are high enough to permit such action), thereby not leaving any 
inside body of fuel long at a time exposed to the cooling effects 
of the cold blast. The benefit of this cannot but be seen if 
connected with the reason for slackening the blast and barring 
a cupola, as noted in the following. A Lehigh-coal fire has 
more of a body than a coke fire. The blast, as it goes into 
a cupola, will more readily cool off coke than coal ; and the 
cooled liod}- of fuel, which more or less sticls to the front of 
tuyeres, if not attended to, gradually increases until it reaches 
nearly to the cupola's centre, which results in scaffolding or 
bunging up the cupola. To assist in preventing such results, 
the blast may occasionally be slackened, the tuyere peep-holes 
opened, and then, with a bar, the cooled body of fuel, and frozen 
droppings of metal, sliould he driven in towards the centre of 
the fire. Thii^ may greatl}' cause the cooled body to be burned 
up. the frozen droppings re-melted, and give a clean hot body 
of fuel for the cold blast to play upon.* 

A point that has much to do with ill success in changing from 
coke to coal is using too strong a blast. As a general thing, 
about one-third less pressure should be used for coke than for 
coal. I know it is nice to see a cupola melt fast ; but not so 
enchanting to have to re-line it about every month, which will 
often result from too strong a blast. 

It is impossible to obtain good clean iron, or have a cupola 
run very long heats, where a cupola is being cut to pieces with 
the blast. The cupola on the right (Fig. 102) ran for about 
one year, almost daily, without being re-lined ; which will, I 
think, be acknowledged as a good showing. I do not credit all 
to the merits of a mild blast. There is another feature that 
undoubtedly had much to do with it : that is, the daubing-up of 
the cupola with fire-clay. 

> Large cupolas will laip-ely take care of themselves, and too much poking of 
tuyeres in small cupolas nia> ptove more Itantiful than none, showing there is a 
limit to such practices. 




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278 COKE AND COAL IN MELTING IROK. 

In both of the Cuyahoga cupolas, we constantly used coal 
and Connellsville coke, as shown, and, by proper attention to 
slagging (which I am sorry to say had to be done through the 
tapping-hole, because of not having a good chance to place a 
regular slag-hole), the cupolas will run for hours, and then 
drop as clean as if they had only been in blast for one hour. 

The smallest cupola which is here shown has been kept in 
blast from 1 p.m. until 7.30 p.m., and then dropped clean. In 
fact, I have never seen such a thing as scaffolding or cupola 
bunging in these cupolas. 

In melting with coke and coal, there is great benefit derived 
from their mixture ; for while it is true coke has some advan- 
tages, it is also true coal has others. As we have noticed 
some of the qualities in which coal is superior, there is one 
more that can be added ; viz., its ability to melt heavy blocks 
of scrap iron. The benefit of coal in this respect could not 
be better shown than by melting a three-ton block accom- 
plished by the Pratt & Whitney Company, Hartford, Conn. 
Having read, in a back number of the " American Machinist," 
of this firm melting a six-thousand pound block of iron, I 
thought at the time there had been a mistake made by adding 
a cipher. As the article did not describe how it was done, or 
any of the details, there was nothing to figure from : so, to in- 
sure that it was correct, I made it my business during one of 
my tours to pay this firm a visit. In talking with Mr. Gardner, 
the foundry foreman, upon the subject, he said it was a fact, 
and took me out to the yard where there was a duplicate of 
the six-thousand-pound piece he had melted. I told him I 
thought he had melted the heaviest block that had ever been 
charged in a cupola of this size, and asked his permission to 
describe the melting at length, as it was a creditable job, and 
would interest many foundrymen. 

The cupola used was a Mackenzie, the size being as shown 
in the engraving. The process of melting was as follows : 




F\z. 103. — Charging: a three-ton block. 



COKE AND COAI. IN MELTING IRON. ^70 

For bed, 2,000 pounds of coal, on which \yas placed the three- 
ton block. Around this was placed 400 pounds of coal, and the 
fire started. After it was well going, the cupola was charged, 
to complete a heat of 22,000 pounds, by having four charges 
of 500 pounds of coal and 4,000 pounds scrap and pig in each 
charge. The first 500 pounds of coal was placed upon the 
6,000-pound block, thereby burying the block in 2,900 pounds 
of coal. The metal was used to pour a similar block, and a 
class of work which, had the metal been somewhat dull, the 
castings would run full. Although this class of work was 
selected, Mr. Gardner said the metal would have run lighter 
work. 

The fuel used for the above heat was one to five, this per- 
centage being necessary b}' the requirement of an extra weight 
of fuel for the bed. For ordinary heats the bed is 1,500 
pounds of coal, with the charges same as used with the block ; 
so that, for an ordinary heat of 22,000 pounds, the fuel would 
be 1 to 6.28. When this block was charged, the cupola was 
well burnt out. Had it not been, Mr. Gardner said he could 
not have melted the block, as there would not have been room 
to properly bed it. For the purpose of admitting this block, 
the charging-door was removed and enlarged so as to make 
it about the height shown. The crane's jib is racked out by 
the handle E. and the load let i\o\\n by means of the handle 
below E. The cut shows the block suspended, ready to be 
lowered down on its bed ; also, when it is bedded in place. 

The charging of heavy scrap by hand and l)ackbone jibs 
is not only a laborious job, but it is injin-ious to the lining and 
bed, and iron can seldom be placed as one might wish. The 
way it is generally done is to let it drop from the charging- 
door to the bed, which, in some cupolas, means a fall of seven 
or eight feet. 

In most all trades, more or less consideration is given the 
comfort of workmen, such as facilities for properly handling 



280 



COKE AND COAL IN MELTING IRON. 



material, but for us foundrymen any thing was generally looked 
upon as good enough: therefore any device which enures to 
our comfort, such as this cupola crane which Mr. Pratt has 
designed, is looked upon with favor by all foundrymen. In 
the early part of this chapter it should have been mentioned, 
that in the cupola at the Cuyahoga Works, as shown by the 
cut, much heavy scrap was melted; and on account of this we 
used the coal as described. 

Mr. Gardner could not have accomplished the successful 
melting of such a heavy block as his with all coke. Outside 
the Cuyahoga Works' cupola scrap-house could be seen piles of 
heavy pieces of old machinery-scrap raiiging from three hun- 
dred up to eight hundred pounds in weight. To keep this pile 
from increasing, we are obliged to melt as many of these 
pieces as possible every heat. In charging them, we omitted 
putting any in with the first twelve hundred pounds, as to do 
so the height of bed would require to be increased. The first 
heavy block would generally be placed upon the top of the fuel 
which covers the twenty-four hundred pounds of iron, which is 
the weight of the first charge placed upon the bed ; then, when 
the first block comes down, the cupola is hotter, and there is 
less risk of the heavy blocks sinking down below the melting- 
point. 

There are few foundries but have some heavy pieces of scrap 
they would like to get rid of, and would do so were they not, 
afraid of bunging-up their cupolas. I would advise such to 
follow Mr. Gardner's plan, or, if the pieces are lighter, to save 
fuel they could place them in the second charge ; and if they 
thought it would damage their cupola, or make bad work be- 
fore it would get all melted, the bottom could be dropped, and 
what was left of the block could be charged in another heat. 
Such heavy pieces are best melted when one can arrange to 
have work that does not require the hottest of iron. Heavy 
scrap when it is melted is superior to light for making clean 



COKE AND COAL IN MELTING IRON. 28i 

mixtures ; and, although it takes more fuel to melt it, it may 
often pa}' in the end to do so. 

There is an adage that "it is a poor foundi-y that cannot 
make its own scrap." Tiio way some lose heavy castings, one 
would think they were trying to supply their neighbors. The 
loss of heav}- castings makes heavy scrap ; and for some shops 
the above may suggest ideas to help them get it out of sight, 
and rid themselves of unpleasant memories. 



282 INTELLlGE^iCE AM) ECONOMY IN MELTiNt*. 



INTELLIGENCE AND ECONOMY IN MELTING. 

There has at no time been the scientific thonght given the 
subject of melting that is given it at the present time. A few 
years back, there were more superstitious melters than intelli- 
gent ones. In fact, there can at the present day be found 
men who look upon the cupola as something more supernatural 
than mechanical. If any thing goes wrong, they give an in- 
quirer a look as much as to say, Question the gods. Dull iron 
one day, hot iron the next, and a bunged cupola the following 
day, may be excusable in some shops ; but, to the intelligent 
founder of to-day, such workings are connected with cause and 
effect, and a want of knowledge. 

The cupola can easily be the master if one does not strive to 
master it. To master the cupola, is simply to have it do as one 
may wish. Hot iron one day, dull another, three or four dif- 
ferent grades got out without being mixed, heavy scrap run 
down, and fast or slow melting, are points that can be and are 
mastered by intelligence. It may be a broad assertion, but 
nevertheless the writer would say, that in no part of foundry' 
l)ractice is there a better chance to control results than in melt- 
ing. The chances are far more in favor of a first-class moulder 
having bad results with his work than he would were he a first- 
class melter. Any mechanic well versed in both branches, I 
think, will verify this statement. 

Having, just before completing this second volume, made a 
tour through many States, I was much pleased to see with 
what interest many foundrymen — who, by the way, were 
readers of ' ' foundry literature ' ' — had taken up the subject of 



INTELLIGENCE AND ECONOMY IN MELTING. 2S3 

melting. Right here I would like to sa}', that, although there 
are those who sneer at foundry literature, a travel through the 
country will prove that the most intelligent and progressive 
moulders are those who read it. It is not always the informa- 
tion we get from reading, that measures its value, but the 
thinking it often induces us to do. 

Among the most intelligent cupola managers, the question 
of economy in fuel is the all-important one ; so important with 
some, that it reminds one of the man who tried to teach his 
mule to live without eating. They keep striving until they find 
themselves sadly the losers. 

This question of economy in fuel is a misleading one. With 
intelligent management, and conditions alike, two distinct 
foundries may melt with a like low percentage of fuel, but what 
may be economy for one shop ma}' be quite the reverse for 
another. 

One shop may have a class of work which will admit of being 
poured when the iron is in a less fluid condition than another. 
Then, again, work may be of the same class, but one has ar- 
rangements for taking care of the iron which will not admit of 
carrying it to the moulds as quickly as the other, such as the 
distance it may have to be carried by hand or power, etc. I 
have worked in shops, where, on account of their poor arrange- 
ment and that of their cranes, the hottest kind of iron would 
often be too dull to properly pour into the mould by the time 
the ladle reached it. Such a shop, if arranged so that the 
metal could he poured into the mould before it began to lose its 
life to any extent, might often with safety melt with much less 
fuel, from the simple fact that they would not require the iron 
to be in as fluid a state. 

There are many things to be considered with reference to 
what is true economy in melting ; and it is not right for one 
to insist that because some other shop may be melting one to 
eight, nine or ten, every other shop should do likewise. The 



284 INTELLIGENCE AND ECONOMY IN MELTING 

size of cupola, height of tuyeres, weight of heats, and the ques- 
tion of running the heats uniformly in weights and mixtures as 
in a specialty foundry, or no two alike as in a jol)biug foundry, 
also the class of iron to be melted, and the work to be poured, 
— all these are things which greatly regulate the per cent with 
which the iron may be melted in the successful running of all 
the shop's work. It is no true economy in melting, ivlien^ hy 
melting with a loiu per cent, the iron comes doion so dull that 
castings are lost, and> ladles " bunged up." It don't require 
the loss of mau}^ castings to balance the cost of the few exti-a 
pounds of fuel it would have taken to make the iron fluid 
enough to fully insure the running of the castings lost because 
the metal was dull. 

Some shops can admit, in practice, melting done with a less 
per cent than others that do the same class of work, from the 
simple fact that they have excellent facilities for handling 
the metal quickly. In cases where work is such as not to require 
very fluid metal, the low percentage that some may with suc- 
cess use certainly would not be advisable for others to practise. 
It may be thought that the iron is very hot ; but if it had to be 
carried as far as it must be in some shops, and then poured into 
thin stones plate castings, it would be found that there was u 
difference in " hot iron." 

Of course the writer has no intention to disparage economy 
in the use of fuel; but the ovly way to rightly judge of true 
economy is to see the facilities of the shop, and class of work to 
be made. For my part, I would not question one to five as 
being extravagant until I knew all the conditions. 

As a matter of fact, when all the circumstances are consid- 
ered, iron is being economically melted from one to five up to 
one to eleven. To melt lower than one to eight, is no doubt 
creditable, and a saving in the cost of melting ; that is, if by 
so doing the welfare of the cupola., ladles, and castings is not 
sacrificed; but were the facts known, more cupolas would be 



INTELLIGENCE AND ECONOMY IN MELTING 285 

found melting one to five than to seven, eight, or nine. I am 
well aware that melting one to eight, nine, or ten, sounds very 
economical when classed against one to five, six, or seven. To 
concisely give his experience and observation on this point, the 
author would assert that in any cupola, running to its medium 
capacity, iron cannot be melted as hot or in as fluid a condition 
with fuel one to nine, ten, or eleven, as with one to five, six, 
or seven. Where intelligence is coupled with experience in 
melting, a good judge of fluid iron can easily detect the de- 
crease in the metal's fluidity caused by melting with less than 
one to eight. With the best possible management and condi- 
tions, I think almost all experts will agree with the author in 
saying that any less fuel than one to eight in medium-sized 
heats will show its results by giving a fluid iron with less life. 
Of course there are many cases where much hotter iron with 
one to eight can be obtained than others would give with one 
to five ; but what the author wishes understood b}' the foregoing 
is, that where one can " melt hot" with one to eight, he will 
notice a decrease in the metal's life and fluidity, should melting 
be done with less fuel. 

To properly charge and take care of a cupola, involves a 
knowledge many are not willing to concede. It is often sur- 
prising, how hot some melters can bring down their iron with 
comparatively less fuel than others use. The management of a 
cupola is every thing : some study to make it a science, while 
others act as if the cupola were only a hole into which the 
iron and fuel are to be thrown, and, if it does not come down 
right, lay the blame to a poor blast or ciqiola, etc. Some in 
melting do not even weigh their stock. In such case, there 
cannot be a uniformity in melting. If one wishes to master 
melting, he must at least weigh the fuel and iron, so as to have 
data from which to work. He can then regulate his heats, and 
have a uniformity that it is impossible to obtain by guess-icork. 
When cupolas arc charged at random, one may see the first of 



286 INTELLIGENCE AND ECONOMY IN MELTING. 

the heat briug dowu hot iron ; the middle, dull irou ; and the 
end, again, hot irou. There may be a half-dozen changes in 
the fluidity of the irou, every charge seeming to make an altera- 
tion in this respect. Uniformity iu melting requires the em- 
ployment of intelligence and system. With this, one can have 
as hot or as dull iron as he may desire. With system, we 
know how high to have a bed, pressure of blast, and the per- 
centage of fuel to use, etc., to assist the obtaining whatever 
fluidity of irou we require ; and the cupola is as easily regulated 
as a clock. 



CONSTRUCTION OF CUPOLAS. 287 



ODDITY AND SCIENCE IN THE CONSTRUC- 
TION OF CUPOLAS. 

Economy in the use of fuel, and fast melting, are points 
sought for in constructing cupolas. To this end, many odd 
features have been introduced. The noticeable oddity of some 
cupolas is in their outline, while with others it is all in the 
tuyeres ; then, again, we see the two combined. / have often 
thought that oddity was devised to heioilder and blind, more than 
to attain improvements in practical results. At least, the attain- 
ment of oddity is sometimes the only success. By oddity in 
cupola construction, is meant a departure or ])reak from the 
plain round cupola having one row of either round or flat 
tuyeres. The different oddities, if shown, might fill a fair-sized 
book. Out of them all, but very few have aiiy advantage over 
the common tuyere straight cupola. Europe, no doul)t, is far 
ahead of our country in the origination of new designs for 
cupolas ; but whether she has accomplished any thing more 
than America in true economy and .s/>€ed, is a question. Should 
any foreigners wish to compare notes with us, I would be pleased 
to have them mainly confine their tests to the two following 
points : first, the fluidity of the iron ; second, the greatest amount 
of iron the cupola can cleanly and successfully melt. These 
two points are generally ignored in all newspaper accounts of 
cupola working. What is one to know of any benefit accruing 
by the footings showing one to eight or ten, if he is not in- 
formed of the fluidity of the iron melted ? Any cupola can be 
made to melt one to eight or ten; but whether the meted is only 
good for pouring or running solid blocks, or can run thin stove- 



288 CONSTRUCTION OF CUPOIoAS. 

plate castings, is the point we should know of to judge as to the 
merits of the economy in fuel. 

Regarding the length of time a cupola may be run without 
Dunging-up, is another point of importance. If one can daily 
melt ten tons in a 30" cupola, where others can hardly do it 
in a 40" cupola, there surely is some advantage gained. 

The running of cupolas is somewhat like foot-racing. Some 
can do excellent work in a short ran, hut give them a long one, 
and they soon become '■'■ played out." 

With reference to where there is a failure in the length of 
time a cupola will melt satisfactorily, I will venture the asser- 
tion that the fault is more often due to mismanagment, than 
to the design of the cuix)la. 

One great fault with cupolas is that of having so much heat 
escape up and out of the stack. Could the heat from two 
cupolas thus lost be concentrated into a third cupola, a person 
would not be far off in saying iron could be melted. Some, 
to derive benefit from this escaping flame, make their charging- 
door as high as they practically can. Others try to construct 
the cupola so as not to generate this flame. To this end, some 
cupolas are made with two rows of tuyeres. The principle 
involved is simply the admitting of an upper volume of air or 
oxygen to unite with the carbon gas liberated from the fuel 
by the bottom tuyeres. The flame one sees at common cupo- 
las' charging-door or stack is greatly caused by the escaping 
gas meeting with the oxygen of the air. If, instead of allow- 
ing this gas to reach the charging-door to receive oxygen, we 
admit oxygen about at the height above the first row of tuyeres, 
where the melting-point commences, we there generate the 
flame, or burn some of the gases that otherwise pass up the 
stack. This point is further treated upon p. 305. If we can 
confine the heat thus produced to the melting-point, instead of 
letting it pass up the stack, there should l)e some benefit derived. 

The amount of air admitted through the upper tuyeres, to 



CONSTllUCTION OF CUPOLAS. 289 

combine with the gas produced by the air passed through the 
lower tuyeres, should only be sufficient to consume the gas 
generated. If more than this is admitted, the solid carbon, or, 
commonly speaking, the fuel, will be attached, and converted 
into gas, which will escape, thereby causing imperfect combus- 
tion. //", by two rows of tuyeres^ more gas is made than there is 
oxygen furnished to consume^ the fact can readily be knoivn by 
the amount of flame seen at charging-door. The greater the 
distance in a cupola between the bottom and the charging- 
door, and the fuller it is charged, the less escape of flame or 
heat. 

In order to conduct some experiments upon this subject of 
two rows of tuyeres, 1 had in the cupola (shown in chapter upon 
" Melting with Coke and Coal," p. 273) four 2^" tuyeres placed 
about 14" above the top of the lower tuyere. In making these 
tuyeres, we simply cut four round holes in the top of the wind- 
box over the peep-holes ; then, after four round holes were cut 
in the cupola's shell, 2\" gas-pipe was used to make the con- 
nection ; and to make the turn, there was a T used having three 
openings. One opening was used as a peep-hole, which was 
closed by a plug screwed into it. In the centre of this screw- 
plug, there was a hole bored, ^|", through which was worked a 
^" rod having a cast-iron conical round plug on its end suffi- 
ciently large to just admit of its sliding easily, and thus regu- 
lating the blast. My experience with these tuyeres was an 
observed improvement in the speed of melting ; and by them at 
least as hot iron was obtained. 

Another advantage which might be well to notice is, that in 
running long heats the upper tuyeres are of much assistance in 
prolonging the life of a heat. Should the lower tuyeres become 
to any serious degree bunged up, the top tuyeres will admit 
much of their blast, thus letting air into the cupola which other- 
wise would be excluded. 

After running a month or so with the two rows of tuyeres, 



290 CONSTRUCTION OF CUPOLAS, 

I had two of the upper tuyeres raised up so as to be 26" above 
the bottom tuyeres. This, then, gave us what might be termed 
three partial rows of tuyeres. The highest row 1 had put in 
for the purpose of trying what effect there would be from blow- 
ing a blast in among the first charge of iron. Many are under 
the impression that when there are two rows of tuyeres, the 
bed of fuel must be well above the upper row, or dull iron will 
be the result. All I can say regarding this is, that we noticed 
no difference in the fluidity of the metal by having the two 
tu^'eres above mentioned blow right into the first charge of iron. 
To ascertain if we were making any advancement in combus- 
tion, we opened and closed the top rows by means of the above- 
mentioned Aalve. When the top rows were open, the flame at 
the charging-door would be so light that one could stand close 
to it, and experience very little discomfort ; but the minute the 
top rows of tuyeres were closed, a strong flame would puff up 
sufficient to make it almost too hot for one to stand there any 
length of time, thus fully demonstrating the benefit of top 
tuyeres in assisting perfect combustion. In experimenting 
with these upper tuyeres, the two rows would alternately be 
opened and closed for the purpose of learning which two of 
the four tuyeres, when open, would most diminish the flame 
at the charging-door. We found that when the two highest 
tuyeres were open, the flame was the least, and they were the 
quickest to act : notwithstanding they seemed to diminish the 
flame the most, I don't think they forwarded the speed in melt- 
ing as much as the two lower tuj^eres. We also experimented 
with closing and enlarging the tuyere openings. From 2^" di- 
ameter we closed them up to 1^" diameter. The 2|" gas-pipes 
gave the best result, both in speed and in reducing the flame at 
the charging-door. Also it might be well to state, that the 2J" 
pipes cut out the lining much more than the 1^" ones did. The 
writer's experiments with these upper tuyei'es would lead him 
to give the following rule for any who might wish to give upper 



CONSTRUCTION OF CUPOLAS. 201 

tuyeres a trial. Insert them from 12" to 16" above the top of 
the bottom tuyeres, and have them of such a diameter as to 
admit from two to three tenths as many square inches of Itlast 
as are admitted by the lower tuyeres. Some, in setting upper 
tuyeres, have them inclining down, so as to have them lowest 
at the inside of the cupola for the purpose of throwing the 
blast down so as to meet that which enters from the lower 
tuyeres, which they claim is essential to the success of combus- 
tion. In one way, at least, it does good ; and that is in keep- 
ing any droppings from running down the tuyeres. The number 
of upper tuyeres to use for sizes above 36" cupolas would be 
six ; from 36" down to 26", four ; or one between every lower 
tuyere which the cupola is intended to have, or has already. 
The upper tuyeres should have some kind of a valve arrange- 
ment, so that the blast admitted can be regulated or shut off at 
pleasure. 

When upper tuyeres are used, it is better not to open them 
until the melting is fairly under wa}' ; and, further, they should 
be closed before all the iron is down ; allowing them to blow 
at the end will tend to badly " cut uat the lining." 

As any improvement ran iy is favorable to every thing, the 
"back-lash" to upper tuye-'3S tends, more or less, to cause 
burning-out of the lining, and thus often increasing the amount 
of slag, which may sometimes cause trouble. 

As there are oddities in cupola designs that show no gain 
over the common cupola, it may interest the reader to learn of 
some that are doing good work. The cupolas shown are said 
to be melting economically, and with speed. Two of them 
embody the principle of admitting oxygen through " upper 
tuyeres " for the purpose above described. The oddity in 
Messrs. Callahan & Dearmon's cupola is all confined to the 
tuyeres. The blast enters an inner wind-belt F, which extends 
entirely around the cupola. From this belt the blast enters the 
cupola through seventeen tuyeres, a section of which is seen in 



292 



CONSTRUCTION OF CUPOLAS. 



Fig. 104. At ^ the front view is seen ; and at S, a section 
through the centre. The manner of setting the tuyeres will be 
better understood by noticing F, in the elevation of the cupola, 
Fig. 105. Fig. 106 shows the outside view of the cupola where 




Cullahan and Deurinon's Worhs Cupola, 
TJayton, Ohio, 



the blast enters. Fig. 107 shows the back view of the tuyeres 
as would be seen by looking in through the branch blast pipes 
at F. The two 10" branch pipes connect to a main pipe 12" 
diameter. The length of this pipe from fan to cupola is eighty- 



CONSTRUCTION OF CUPOLAS. 293 

five feet. The blower used is a No. 7 Sturtevant ; revolutions, 
two thousand one hundred per minute. 

The cupola heat was as follows : For the bed, 648 pounds of 
coke, upon which was charged 1,200 pounds of iron. The 
after charges, of which there were nine, were made each of 60 
pounds coke and 1,200 pounds of iron. 
The totals for the heat were : 

Amount of iron melted . . . . • 12,000 lbs. 

Amount of fuel consumed 1,188 " 

Ratio of fuel to iron used 1 to lO^^ 

The fluidity of the iron melted was described "hot." As 
the iron is for castings used in the manufacture of hydraulic 
oil machinery, the iron would necessarily require to be of fair 
quality. The fire was started at 1.15 o'clock ; first iron charged, 
2.30; blast put on, 3.12; iron down, 3.18; bottom dropped, 
4.42. This shows the length of heat to be one hour and thirty 
minutes. J. B. Francis, the foundry foreman, writes that the 
scrap used was light, and that the blast had to be occasionally 
slackened in order to allow the iron to be taken care of. For 
a flux, fluor spar was used. The iron used was half scrap and 
pig ; the fuel, Connellsville coke. 

The next cupola is that of the National Iron Works, San 
Francisco, Cal. W. W. Hanscom, M. E., the designer, gives 
the following record of heat taken March 24, 1884 : — 

Time of starting fire 1.30 p.m. 

Charging first iron 3.00 " 

Blast put on 4.37 " 

Iron down 4.45 " 

Bottom dropped 6.20 " 





CHARGES. 




Bed, Lehigh coal . 


. . . 650 lbs., 


iron, 3,000 lbs. 


English cote . 


... 125 " 


" 2,000 " 


« (( 


... 100 " 


" 1,500 " 


" " 


. . . 100 " 


" 1,300 " 


(( « 


... 100 " 


" 1,300 " 



^94 



CONSTRUCTtON OF CUPOLAS. 




National Iron Works 
Cupola, 

Sail frnnnisco, Cat. 



Fig. 108. 

BLAST PRESSURE. 

4.52 P. M 14,2 inches water. 



4.55 
5.05 
5.20 
5.32 



14.8 
15.2 
15.6 
16.4 



5.45 " 13.4 



5.51 
6.00 
613 



11 
8.2 
5.6 



CONSTRUCTION OF CUPOLAS. 295 

TOTALS. 

Iron melted 9,100 lbs. 

Fuel consumed * . . . 1,075 " 

Ratio of fuel to iron 1 to 8.46 

Length of heat, 1 hour and 43 minutes. 

"The iron was hot enough for stove-plate. Had the work 
been heavier, so that crane ladles could have been used, faster 
melting would have been done. Were coke instead of coal 
used for bed, five hundred and twenty-five pounds would be 
the weight used, thereby making the ratio 1 to 9.57. The iron 
charged was scrap and pig in equal proportions. A No. 5 
Sturtevant fan was used ; blast pipe, twelve inches diameter 
and fifteen feet long. The size of cupola given is when first 
lined up. At the time this heat was taken, it would be about 
three inches larger diameter." The foregoing is not thought 
to present the lowest ratio this cupola can be made to melt 
with. The author has a report from Mr. Hanscom of a heat 
taken later than the above, which shows the ratio to be 1 to 
11.64. This only goes to substantiate what is set forth in the 
chapter on " Economy in Melting," which states that any cupola 
can be made to melt with a low percentage of fuel ; but whether 
the metal is good for solid blocks, or stove-plate castings, is 
the point which decides the economical part of the question. 

The record of workings for the Niles Tool Works cupola is 
given as follows : — 

Time of starting fire 2.10 p.m. 

Charging first iron 3.30 " 

Blast put on 4.30 " 

Iron down 4.42 " 

Bottom dropped 6.05 " 



596 



CONSTRUCTION OF CUPOLAS. 




Fig. 109. — Niles Tool Works Cupola, Hamilton, Ohio. 




Fig. no, — Cheney Cupola. 



CONSTRUCTION OF CITPOLAS. 29t 

Bed, Connellsville cokt 



CHARGES 






. . 1,200 lbs. 


iron. 


, 6,000 lbs, 


. . 572 " 




6,000 '^ 


. . 572 " 




6,000 " 


. . 704 " 




6,000 " 


. . 660 " 




6,000 " 


. . 572 " 




6,000 '^ 



TOTALS. 

Iron melted 36,000 lbs. 

Fuel consumed 4,280 " 

Ratio of fuel to iron 1 to 8.41 

Length of heat, 1 hour and 35 minutes. 

The iron is described as being verj' hot, and the cupola as 
giving entire satisfaction in both economy and speed. One- 
third scrap to two-thirds pig iron was melted. The blower is 
Root's No. 6 ; revolutions, one hundred and twenty-five per 
minute ; length of blast pipe, twenty-five feet. Fluor spar and 
limestone used for flux. 

The next cupola to be noticed is what is called " The Cheney 
Cupola." In its design, there are many admirable features 
which commend themselves to the practical man. The follow- 
ing is Mr. Cheney's description of his cupola, as published 
by the "Boston Journal of Commerce." 

" The cut illustrates the manner of constructing an economi- 
cal cupola of medium size, to melt four tons of iron per hour. 
It is thirty-four inches inside diameter, and will melt six or 
seven tons of iron without slagging. By opening the slag-hole 
after four tons of iron have been drawn, the melt may be con- 
tinued to twenty tons. To make the slag fluid, so as to run off 
freely, use thirty pounds of limestone to one ton of iron. 

" In charging this cupola with coke, put 600 pounds on the 
bed ; on that, 2,000 pounds of iron. In the subsequent charges, 
use 130 pounds of coke and 1 ,400 pounds of iron. In a melt of 



298 CONSTRUCTION OF CUrOLAS. 

eight tons, this cupola will melt ten pounds of iron to one pountl 
of coke, or eight pounds of iron to one pound of coal. If coal 
is used for fuel, the sand-bed should be made about three or 
four inches deeper than when coke is used. 

"This cupola is designed for ordinary foundry-work where 
sharp iron is wanted. For heav}' foundry- work, such as cast- 
ings, requiring several tons of iron in one piece, the bed may 
be made deeper by placing the tuyeres from four to six inches 
higher in the large-size cupolas. 

"Put on blast as soon as the cupola is charged, and give this 
cupola about six ounces pressure of blast for coke, and nine 
ounces pressure for coal. 

"When the lining burns away, and the dimensions of the 
cupola are enlarged so that six hundred pounds coke fail to 
make the bed sixteen inches above the upper tuyeres, the coke 
in the bed must be increased ; also mcrease the iron on first 
charge in same proportion as the coke is increased. 

"Fig. 110 shows a cupola shell 48" in diameter, continued 
same size to the full height ; lined with 2" common brick flat- 
ways to top of charging-door, and inside these 4^" fire-brick. 
The common brick always remain, so that when the fire-brick 
gets thin the shell is protected. 

" A is the sand bottom. 

" B is the iron runner. 

" I is the slag runner. Outlet for slag is a 2" hole opposite 
the iron runner, ^" lower than the bottom of the lower tuyeres. 

" C, lower tuyeres. They decline inward ^" in G", and are 
16" above bed-plate, 8^" wide at face of lining, and 3^" vertical, 
made with flange on the upper side to bolt to the shell. The 
opening through the shell to admit the blast into these tuyeres 
is 3" by 5". Each opening admits fifteen square inches. 

" D, upper tuyeres. They are 2" in diameter, decline inward 
2^" in 6", and are 29" above bed-plate at the inside of the 
lining. The hole through the shell to admit blast is 1|" in 



CONSTRUCTION OF CUPOLAS. 



299 



diameter. Six of these tuyeres are made with a flange on the 
top side so as to bolt the tuyere to the inside of tlie shell. 
These tuyeres each receive 1^ square inch blasts through the 
shell. 

'' F is an 8" blast pipe to connect the wind-chamber with the 
main pipe, which should not be less than 12" in diametei-. If 
the blower is more then lift}' feet from the cupola, the main 
pipe should be 14" diameter. The wind-chambers have open- 
ings opposite each tuyere, with peep-holes in the shutters. 




Fig. 111. 



" E, wind-chamber, is 10" deep and 22" vertical, made in 
two sections, each section to supply wind to three tu3'eres. 

"• H, charging-door, is twelve feet above bed-plate. 

"Fig. Ill shows a sectional view through the tuyeres. 
They are the same width as the lining between them, and supply 
an equal force of blast to all the fuel. _ The tuyere must be 
twice as large as the opening which admits the blast, and must 
occupy one-half the space around the inner circumference of 



300 CONSTRUCTION OF CUPOLAS. 

the cupola. In larger cupolas, increase the number of the 
tuyeres. 

"Fig. 112 shows a perspective view of the wind-chamber, 
made in semi-circles, so that when it is bolted to the shell it will 
extend around it, forming one chamber to supply wind to all the 




Fig. 112. 

tuyeres, and dropping down 8" in front of the lower tuyeres. 
If through carelessness the iron overflows the tuyeres into the 
wind-chamber, it is more easily removed than if the chamber is 
even on the bottom, and the chamber is not in the way of the 
slag-hole." 



COMMENTS ON CUPOLAS. 301 



COMMENTS ON CUPOLAS. 

In closing the preceding chapter, it may be said there are 
those who, no doubt, would prefer the author's giving a few 
comments upon the merits of the respective cupolas therein 
mentioned. 

Taking them in the order shown, the first we come to is that 
at the Callahan and Dearmon's works. The style of tuyere 
used is one that ought to work well in melting with coke alone 
in straight cupolas which range from 48" down. Below 40" 
the tuyere area should be decreased in proportion to the de- 
crease in diameter of the cupola. From 40" to 48" it would be 
best to use the tuyere area shown ; for, to enlarge them would 
deter the blast more or less from being forced through the 
tuyeres to aid combustion in the centre body of the fuel, which 
in cupolas over 40" having outside tuyeres only, can never pos- 
sess the live combustion that is carried on at the outer body 
of the cupola's circumference.' 

In melting with coke, it is well that large tuyere areas be 
used, as they serve to prevent tuyeres from bunging up in run- 
ning off heavy heats. With coal, it is not as essential to have 
a large tuyere area, for the reason its life is not so readily 
chilled and "blown out" by blast pressure as in the case of 
coke; and also it is often beneficial to have the tuyere area 
made smaller for coal, as by doing so some fuel can be saved 
in making the bed. 

We reqtiire more pressure, or density of blast, in melting tviih 
coal, for the sim^Jle reason, from its compactness it forms a most 
dense f lid. It must be understood that this extra pressure is 
not to be created by a contraction of the tuyeres : whenever 

' Iiiforiiiatioij on attaining good centre combustion is found in pag^es 381 to 411. 



302 COMMENTS ON CUPOLAS, 

})ressure must be increased, it must be done by increasing flic 
power upon the blower; und the increase there generated should 

exist in the cupola as well as in the blast pipes or at the 

tuyeres. 

Chemicall}' speaking, it is not pressure that fuel demands to 
produce combustion, but an ample supply of oxygen : we use 
the pressure simply as a motive i)ower to deliver and feed the 
oxygen to the carbon in the fuel ; and could this oxygen be 
supplied in sufOcient quantities, without the use of this press- 
ure, cupolas could be made to run for mouths, if dirt and slag 
were taken care of, and the lining were of such a character as 
would withstand the constant heat. 

The smaller the area of cupola tuyeres, the more pressure 
the fuel in front of them receives. When the area of tuyeres 
is such as to cause the blast to have its velocity and density 
increased as it enters the cupola, the process of " bunging up " 
at the tuyeres is greatly incited. The less the force of the 
blast is concentrated upon the fuel in front of tuyeres, the 
longer will they freely permit the proper volume of air to be 
blown into the cupola. 

The quantity of oxygen necessary to form and incite com- 
bustion is regulated according to the area of a cupola, and the 
kind of fuel used. The quantity required is obtained b}' means 
of the speed given to the "blower," and the tuyeres are only 
used for the purpose of affording this quantity an entrance to 
the fuel in the cupola. In small cupolas, there is ncf fear but 
that streams of the blast can be made to roach centre of the 
cupola by the use of large tuyeres. For large cupolas, some 
decrease the tuyere area, thinking to thereby force the blast 
more to the centre of the cupola. This is a bad plan, as to 
obtain the best combustiori in the centre body of large cujiolas 
can only be done by the use of a " centre blast" tuyere or to 
make cupolas of over CO" inside diameter contracted at the tu}'- 
eres similarly to the j^lan adopted by the "Mackenzie cupola." 



COMMENTS ON CUPOLAS. 303 

In other words, if a cupola needs to be <)0", 70", SO", or more 
in diameter, do not let the diameter at the tuyeres be enlarged 
over 60": by this plan we can use a good large tuyere area, and 
at the same time give the blast more chance to reach the cu- 
pola's centre. A rule for the area of tuyere blast-pipes, etc.. 
will be found in chapter upon " Areas of Tuyeres and Blast- 
pipe " (p. 315). 

Another plan which works well with large cupolas is this : 
instead of making them round, to have them constructed oblong. 
B}- this method any area can be obtained, and at the same time 
the blast be given good opportunity to reach the central body 
of the fuel. Some, in making their cupolas oblong, contract 
them at the tuyeres similarly to the one described in construct- 
ing round cupolas. It is, however, seldom best to do this 
with oblong cupolas, unless in case of a very large one ; for it 
is liable to result in the bungiug-up of the cupola.' Any cupola 
had better be made with a straight lining wherever it is practi- 
cal, or not injurious in other ways. When the shortest diame- 
ter of any style cupola measures over 60", then it becomes 
advisable to contract the tuyeres so they shall not exceed 60", 
or use "centre blast." AVith our ordinary pressure or density 
of blast used, this will afford the blast a good opportunity to 
'penetrate tlirough tlie fuel, and thus promote the rapid com- 
bustion which should be created in the centre of a cupola. 

Where the Callahan and Dearmon style of tuyere is used for 
large cupolas, say from 60" up to 7"y or over, the better jilan 
would be, not to enlarge the diameter at the tuyeres to exceed 
60" or to leave the cupola perfectly straight and use a "cen- 
tre blast " tuyere, the construction and use of which is fully 
described in pages 381 to 411. 

Where all coal is the fuel to be used with such tuyeres, they 
would be better 4" instead of G" deep as shown, and 4" or 5" 
lower. 

The next cupola we come to is that of the National Iron 
Worlcs, as shown, and is practically a coke cupola. 

' For further information of oblong cupolas, see pages 376 to 380, 



304 COMMENTS ON CUPOLAS. 

Where all coal is the fuel used, better results would be 
obtained if the top row of four tuyeres were lowered about 
12", and the bottom iron of six tuj^eres lowered G", and the 
diameter of the top tuyeres made ^' less than now shown. 

The Niles Tool Works' cupola is one which should melt very 
fast if it had plenty of blast, on account of its having three 
rows of tu3'eres, or, as it might be put, three melting zones. 
The principle in this cupola construction is one which would 
give poor results if it were carried into the building of cupolas 
under 48" diameter : the size of this cupola, as seen, is 60" in 
diameter. The reason for failure in small sizes is the choking 
of the cupola which the small area at tuyeres in running long 
heats would cause. The cupola would of course melt rapidly, 
but its heat would be short-lived. See pages 1^76 to 380. 

The last cupola to be noticed is the "Cheney." This is 
a well-arranged cupola for melting with coke. Its area of 
tuyeres is good and large, the construction of the wind-belt is 
one well designed, and the peep-holes seen are something most 
all cupolas should have. The height of the cupola is another 
admirable feature : this is as shown twelve feet high from bot- 
tom to the charging-door, which gives the stock every chance 
to receive benefit from escaping heat of the fuel. AYere this 
cupola with its diameter shown to be built expressly for coal, 
the tuyeres would be better if made 4" or 5" lower than shown. 
If in any of the four cupolas as now shown, coal were to be 
used, their sand bottoms could be made 4" or 5" deeper than if 
they were used in heats where coke is the fuel : this would 
practically be the same thing as making the tuyeres lower than 
shown. 

For the purpose of aiding any who may be inclined to pat- 
tern after any of the cupolas, the measurements are given as 
shown. 



BLAST AND COMBUSTION. 305 



BLAST AND COMBUSTION. 

The oxygen of the atmosphere, when combined with the car- 
bon of fuel, generates combustion : without tliis oxygen, carbon 
could not be consumed. A piece of coke or coal, if immersed 
in a ladle of iron so that air could not reach it, would only 
char ; showing us that oxygen, and not heat, is the reducing 
agent or supporter of combustion. 

For every pound of carbon fuel contains (which on an aver- 
age for coal is placed at seventy-five to eighty per cent), 11.6 
pounds, or 152 cubic feet of air at 62°, are required for its 
perfect combustion. Gases resulting from combustion of the 
carbon of coal and oxygen of the atmosphere are said to be 
of same bulk as that of atmospheric air required to furnish the 
oxygen. Taking this in connection with the amount of oxygen 
or air that escapes without combining with the carbon of the 
fuel (which is by some placed at from twenty-five to fifty per 
cent) , the necessity of having to furnish more air than at the 
rate of 11.6 pounds of air per pound of carbon the fuel con- 
tains for its mechanical combustion, is at once seen. Coal 
being a much more dense fuel than coke, more pressure or 
volume of air is needed for its combustion in the workings of 
a cupola. While chemically, as shown by table, p. 308 (com- 
piled from MM. Favre and Silberman, D. K. Clark, and others), 
nearly the same volume of air is required for the combustion of 
coke and coal, we find that practically, in the use of coal and 
coke separately in the same cupola, from one-fourth to one- 
third more air is used in the creation of a like rapid combustion 
when melting with all coal, than when all coke is used. If it is 



306 BLAST AND COMBUSTION. 

a fact that coal and coke chemically require nearly the same 
volumes of air, then this extra one-fourth or one-third volume 
of air used in melting with coal is but an addition to the non- 
combining oxygen, and passes off as the spent product of press- 
ure. To be thus compelled to have the volume increase with 
pressure, — when with coal, m one sense, more pressure than 
volume is required to accomplish the desired rapidity of melt- 
ing, — is indeed employing a " necessary evil : " for, since the 
blast is cold, it must be raised in temperature before it can 
enter into combustion ; and when more air than can be utilized 
is forced into a cupola, extra heat is absorbed, and therefore it 
must increase the retarding of melting, for its influence is to 
reduce temperature. From this fact can be deduced, there is 
such a thing as delivering too much air into a cupola, a thing 
which man)' think cannot be done. Combustion cannot proceed 
beyond a certain rate ; and an excessive supply of air only 
causes a waste of heat, and an uncalled-for destruction of the 
cupola's lining. An insufficient supply causes imperfect com- 
bustion. The first combination of carbon with oxygen produces 
carbonic acid, and this, in passing up thi'ough the fuel, fre- 
quently takes up more carbon, and is converted into carbonic 
oxide ; which, if allowed to pass away in this state, causes con- 
siderable loss of heat, as carbonic oxide is a combustible gas. 
and can be burnt by furnishing it with a supply of air ; which, 
if it only gets as it reaches the charging-door, is then of 
course too late to be of any service. By having a requisite 
volume of air properly delivered, this carbonic oxide is much 
decreased, and therefore more carbonic acid, which is the prod- 
uct of perfect combustion, created. To know when we have 
the requisite amount of air in our cupolas, can in every-day 
practice be but approximately told. However, there is much 
that might be done to help us in intelligently handling the 
supply of the requisite quantities of blast. When we think 
how few foundries there are that have any idea of their blast 



BLAST AND COMBUSTION. 307 

pressure, or the volume of air used, and secondly how few 
arrange so as to assist the pressure in delivering its volume 
properly into the cupola, we are not surprised at their excessive 
cost in running. A great many cupolas are constructed so that 
the tuj-eres cannot be examined to see if they are working freely. 
The first thing to know is the density of the blast which the 
blower is creating, and this is easily shown by attaching a blast- 
gauge to the pipe. The second thing is to know if the right 
volume of blast is being delivered into the cupola. This can 
be told to a certain extent by a practical man, by noting the 
cupola's action ; and he may judge very closely as to its work- 
ing. In fact, it is almost the only way of telling whether or 
not a cupola is receiving its proper amount of blast ; for the 
pressure of blast in a cupola cannot be known from that gen- 
erated in the blast-pipes. The pressure in a cupola is generally 
much less than that in the blast-pipes ; and the amount of 
difference will depend upon how close the iron is charged, and 
how high and full the cupola is, and also on tuyere area for the 
passage of air into the cupola. Towards the end of a heat, 
higher pressure will generally exist in the blast-pipes than in 
the beginning. This is caused by the tendency of tuyeres to 
become ^'bunged up," and the accumulation of slag and dirt 
in the bed. Chilled iron mixed with fuel and slag is not always 
the only cause of '' choking-up " of tuyeres; often clean fuel 
will lodge so close in front of tuyeres as to choke them up 
considerably. This is one of the reasons why large tuyeres 
are often recommended, for with them the fuel has less chance 
of preventing the free delivery of the blast ; for we must not 
lose sight of the fact that fuel packed up close to the mouth of 
a tuyere acts to a degree like a damper. A good thing in 
practice is, just before the blast is put on, to bar the tuyeres 
so that whatever pieces of fuel may be "choking" them up, 
will be pushed back, and thus give the blast a good chance to 
enter ; and then by watching the tuyeres, and keeping them 



308 



BLAST AND COMBUSTION, 



open during the course of the heat, the requisite volumes of 
nir can be more readily admitted. 



Combustibles. 


Weights of Oxygen 
consumed per 
pound of Com- 
bustible. 


Quantity of Air 
consumed per 
pound of Com- 
bustibles. 


Total heat of com- 
bustion of one 
pound of Com- 
bustible. 


One pound weight. 


Pound. 


Pound. 


Cubic ft. 
at 62° F. 


Units. 


Coke, desiccated . . 
Coal, average . . . 


2.51 
2.46 


10.9 
10.7 


143 
141 


13.550 
14.133 



That the pressure or density of the blast as measured in the 
pipes is more or less regulated by the tuyere openings, and 
closeness and toeight of the charged iron, is beyond dispute. 
The conclusion to be drawn from the above would point to 
the advisability of charging iron closer for coal than for coke ; 
as, the closer the iron is charged, the longer should it take the 
air and gases to travel upwards, thus affording a better chance 
for the increasing of pressure or density of blast in among 
the coal, without being obliged to raise the temperature of the 
unused volume of escaping air referred to in fore part of this 
cliai)ter. The cupola may be said to be only the end of a blow- 
er's blast-pipe, and the charges of fuel and iron but a damper, 
which could be packed so close as to almost shut off the escape 
of the gases or blast. 

It is not intended by the foregoing to say iron and fuel 
should be charged so close as to form a damper, so that the 
gases generated by the combustion of the fuel should not freely 
escape ; but simply to show how we can regulate pressure within 
limits. A cupola will genei'ally melt with more economy of 
fuel and speed by close charging of the iron than if space is 
left for a more free escape of the heat or flame. 



BLAST AND COMBUSTION. 



309 



The pressure of the blast used on cupolas ranges from three 
up to eighteen ounces. For coal, from one-fourth to one-third 
more pressure is required than for coke ; and for either fuel, 
the larger the diameter of the cupola, the more pressure is re- 
quired. A good showing of the average pressui'e used upon 
different diameters of cupolas is seen in the following table, 
which is compiled from Sturtevant's experiments. 

As speed in melting is chiefly augmented by the blast, the 
cupola should be supplied with all the volume it is possible to 
use profitably ; for, the more rapid the melting, the better and 
hotter will be the metal produced. 



Diameter in 


Melting Capacity 


Cubic Feet 


Pressure 


Inches inside 


PER HOUR IN 


OF Air 


in Ounces of 


OP Cupola. 


Pounds. 


per minute. 


Blast. 


22 


1200 


324 


5 


26 


1900 


507 


6 


30 


2880 


768 


7 


35 


4130 


1102 


8 


40 


6178 


1646 


10 


46 


8900 


2375 


12 


53 


12.500 


3353 


14 


60 


16560 


4416 


14 


72 


23800 


6364 


16 


84 


33300 


8880 


16 



"The number of cubic feet of air per minute given against 
each size cupola is the result of numerous tests taken on 
cupolas. 

' " The melting capacity per hour in pounds of iron is made 
up from an average of tests on a few of the best cupolas 
found, and is reliable in cases where the cupolas are well con* 
structed, and driven with the greatest force of blast given in 
the table." — Sturtevant. 



310 SLAGGING OUT CUPOLAS. 



SLAGGING OUT CUPOLAS. 

As slagging out cupolas is one of the most important things 
to be performed in successfully running them for long heats, it 
was thought a special chapter on the subject would attract 
attention to its importance. 

When it is remembered, by slagging out a cu^wla its melting 
capacity can be increased so as to make large cupolas run 
steady for a whole week, the importance of slagging out cu- 
polas at once appears. 

Slag is the result of impurities derived from the fuel, the iron, 
and the burning-out of a cupola-lining. To dispose of it, many 
let it run out through the tapping-hole ; and, again, others more 
fortunate have in the cupola a slag-hole for " slagging out." 

In slagging out by means of the " tapping-hole," it is some- 
times let out at almost every tap ; but a better way is, if pos- 
sible, to " keep a head " of iron in the cupola until a sufficient 
amount of slag has accumulated, and then to make a special 
tap to let it out. Having made a good-sized hole, then by 
means of the regular pressure of blast let the cupola blow out 
until all the accumulated slag is disposed of, and then stop up, 
repeating the operation as a sufficient body of slag accilmulates. 
As the end of the heat approaches, the slag taps require to be 
made oftener. It ma}' accumulate toward the end of the heat 
so that at every tap more or less slag must be let out. As a 
general thing, however, if ordinarily clean fuel and iron are 
used, "slagging out" is not connnenced until from one-third 
to one-half of "the heat is down." This refers to what are 
termed "heavy heats;" for as a general thing, unless burnt 
iron or bad fuel is used, "light heats" seldom require any 
•' slagging out." 



SLAGGING OUT CUPOLAS. 811 

By the above expression "keeping a head," is meant to 
simply not permit all the iron to run out of the cupola before 
stopping up. Slag floats upon the top of iron : therefore, by 
keeping a head of liquid iron in the cupola, the slag cannot run 
out of the tappiug-hole. 

In slagging out by means of a regular " slag-hole," the tap- 
ping-hole can be kept clean. Slag-holes are simply a hole about 
2" diameter made from 2" to 15" below the tuyere's bottom, as 
illustrated in many of the cupolas shown. You can allow the 
top of the slag-hole up within about two inches of the bottom of 
the tuj'eres ; if au}- nearer than this, the cold blast entering the 
cupola has a tendency to chill the slag, and, if your tu3'ere is a 
continuous one, lilow it back. Should the tuyeres be such as 
have a space between them, then place the slag-hole about 
in the middle of the two tuj^eres which are the farthest away 
from the tapping-hole. When the slag commences to accu- 
mulate, the slag- hole, having been stopped up with clay, is 
"tapped," and, in some cases, is left open during the balance 
of the heat ; then the blast blowing out carries slag with it. 
In others, when slagging out through a slag-hole, opening and 
closing it is done at intervals, but before opening it the liquid 
iron is allowed to rise nearly to a level with the hole ; which 
brings the slag upon a level with the slag-hole, so that it can 
readily run out when the hole is opened. After the slag is 
nearly all out, if the metal has not risen so as to compel the 
cupola to be tapped out in order to keep the metal from running 
out of the slag-hole, the slag-hole is then stopped up, and the 
cupola tapped out. 

The height to place a slag-hole should be chiefly regulated by 
the class of work to be done.' Where the metal must be car- 
ried away by small or hand ladles, the slag-hole should be 
lower than if the metal is carried away by crane ladles. 

In using small ladles, it is not desira])le to allow much of 
a head to accumulate ; whereas, with craue ladles, a body is 

' See page 377 for conditions calling for location of slag-holes. 



312 SLAGGING OUT CUPOLAS. 

often allowed to accumulate in order that taps may yield a 
large amount each time. In the latter case, this necessity may 
arise on account of waiting for a ladle to be returned ; then, 
again, it may be best to have large taps for the purpose of 
assisting in retaining the life of the metal ; and, thirdly, it 
fatigues the melter unnecessarily to be obliged to tap most 
every minute, when once in fifteen minutes would answer. 

Slag is a substance which will cool off quickly. Therefore, 
when passing down by the tuyeres, or allowed to remain in a 
cupola, it becomes easily chilled by the effects of the cold blast. 
^^'heu cliilled, the blast cannot penetrate through it, and it soon 
forms a barrier which can prevent the blast from entering. 
Also, as slag chills, more or less of the iron and fuel is incased 
by it, and this makes it more difficult to deal with. 

The more fluid slag can be made, the easier it is to remove it 
from the cupola. For this purpose, fluxes, which will separate 
the slag from the " stock," and impart fluidity to the slag, are 
used. Not onl}' are fluxes valuable for the above, but they 
glaze a cupola's lining, and are thus of great assistance in 
preventing the heat from cutting it. It is not necessary to 
mention here the different fluxes in common use, as the reader 
will have noticed them in other parts of this work. 

The amount of slag a cupola will create depends upon the 
cleanliness of the fuel, the quality of iron used, etc. Burnt 
iron, in any form, is almost the worst thing that could be put 
into a cupola, to create slag; and to have the cupola lining 
''cutout" is almost as bad, since it is composed of nothing 
' ut clays. There are two reasons that are the usual causes 
of cuttmg linings. The first is blowing with too strong a blast; 
the second, improper daubing of the cupola, which greatly con- 
sists in putting on too much clay. While the above are some 
of the causes for the creation of slag, it might be well to add 
that fuel, although it may be free of dust or dirt, creates more 
or less slag. Fuel containing a large per cent of dirt, ush. 



SLAGGING OUT CUPOLAS. 31 S 

slate, or stone, is ver}' productive of slag; and the same may 
be said of iron which is coated with rust or sand. 

Another feature which is very essential for tiie success of 
long heats is keeping the tuyeres open. All cupolas that are 
expected to run long heats should have some arrangement 
whereby the melter can see the fuel, and get at it with a bar as 
soon as any chilling shows signs of seriously bridging around 
or above the tuyeres. Some may inquire how they are to know 
when chilling is commencing to cause serious effect. It is seen 
when the fuel commences to look black, and closed up so as to 
prevent entrance of the blast. The fuel in front of the tuyeres 
should be so open that more or less of the inner fire can be 
seen. When the fuel in front of the tuyeres commences to get 
dark and closed up so that the blast is prevented from enter- 
ing into the cupola, the blast should be slackened, the tuyeres 
opened one by one, and the chilled material driven, with a bar, 
towards the centre of the cupola. This will give a fresh supply 
of hot fuel for the cold blast to play upon, and the chilled 
material sent into the hot fire will be partly consumed. By 
referring to pp. 312 and 329 of vol. i., other points touching 
upon this subject will be found. It must be remembered that 
Uiere is a limit to '• poking out " the tuyere : too much is mju- 
rious, as it causes the body of the fire in front of the tuyeres 
to be filled with material that will always have a tendency to 
deaden it. The tuyeres should not be let go too long, nor 
should they be opened any ofteuer than is actually necessary to 
allow the blast a fair chance to get into the cupola. It would 
be better for a cupola if it could be arranged to run long heats 
without the necessity of " poking the tuyeres." The smaller 
the area of tuyeres is, the more liable are they to cause 
trouble from becoming " bunged up." Having the tuyeres 
large, or plenty of them, is the best plan to adopt to avoid 
the necessity of being obliged to ''poke the tuyeres" often 
during long heats. The area of tuyeres, etc., will be found 



314 



SLAGGING OUT CUPOLAS. 



fully treated in the chapter "Areas of Tuyeres and Blast- 
Pipes," p. 315. 

Proper fluxing ^ slagging out, and keeping the tuyeres open, is 
" half the battle " in the management of cupolas ; and one who 
can intelligently manipulate slagging out, and keeping the tuy- 
eres open, will get about double the amount of metal out of a 
cupola, that he would if no attention were paid to the above 
points. The following table gives an approximate idea of the 
amount of iron ordinary cupolas should melt without slagging 
out, and with " slagging out." 



Inside Diameter op 
Cupola in Inches. 


Melting Capacity in 
Tons when not 
Slagging out. 


Melting Capacity in 
Tons when Slagging 

OUT. 


20 


2 


- 4 


25 


3 


8 


30 


5 


12 


35 


7 


16 


40 


9 


24 


45 


13 


34 


50 


15 


50 


55 


30 


65 


60 


25 


80 


65 


30 


100 


70 


35 


130 


75 


40 


160 


80 


50 


200 



Note. — The author does not wish it understood that cupolas could not be made to 
tnelt any noore than shown in " slagging out " column. The weight there given might 
Often be exceeded, especially in the large cupolas. In fact, when properly fttixdl, 
flagged, and tuyere-opened, large cupolas could often be made to run ae long aa the 
lining would stand the constant beat. 



AREAS OF TUYERES AND BLAST PIPES 315 



AREAS OF TUYERES AND BLAST PIPES. 

It is evident from an examination of tiie table upon p. 321, 
giving tlie ratio of the area of the tuyere to that of the cupola, 
tliat there exists a great variation in the ratio of tuyere to 
cupola area allowed in the cupola-practice of America, ranging, 
as is seen, from 4.32 to as high as 30.75 per cent. By this some 
may be led to think that most any area will do for the admit- 
tance of air to a cupola. There is no question but considerable 
difference in the per cent of tuyere area can be used with but 
little or no ill results. 

While great variation in tuyere area is admissible, some ill 
effects will undoubtedly result from an indiscriminating adop- 
tion of tuyere area. The author is far from affirming that there 
would be no observable difference in the working of two cupo- 
las, both same diameter and run under like conditions, but one 
having a tuyere area of only four, and the other of thirty, per 
cent of that contained in the cupola. 

Upon general principles, small tuyere areas cause shorter- 
lived melting than large tuyere areas. This question will be 
found discussed upon p. 329, vol. i. and p. 302, vol. ii. What 
tuyere area is the best to adopt, the reader will be better able to 
understand, after reading the pages above referred to, and a 
study of the tables and formulas at the end of this chapter. 

In taking up tlie question of blast-pipes, areas, etc., attention 
IS first called to the table of B. F. Sturtevant's for equalizing 
the diameter of pipes (p. 316); which is very valuable, as by it 
one can readily learn the number and diameter of branch pipes 
necessary in conveying of blast from the main pipes to a cupola. 





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316 



AREAS OF TUYERES ANT) BLAS7 PIPES. 317 

Sturtevant's table is one which will not only save labov in cal- 
culating areas of blast-pipes, but is valuable in other respects ; 
one of which is prominently showing the retarding effect of 
friction in the delivery of volumes of air through long pipes, 
and the advisability of placing hloioers near to a cupola in order 
to save cost in motive poioer, for the cost to supply motive 
power to drive air through long pipes is something worthy of 
consideration. The nearer a blower can practically be placed 
to a cupola, the better results in every way will be produced. 

Blast-pipes should be sufficiently large to convey the required 
volume of air without undue loss by friction. The longer the 
distance air is carried, the larger in diameter should the pipes 
be. Where small conducting-pipes are used, much more power 
is necessary, as a greater velocit}- is required to discharge a 
given amount of air ; the friction being increased in the ratio 
of the square of the velocity with which the air moves. 

The table of Baker's (p. 318), giving the diameter of main 
l)last-pipes, will be found a valuable companion to the Sturte- 
vant's table, in determining the areas of main and branch 
blast-pipes. 

"Blast-pipe should, in all eases, be air-tight. A few small 
holes often cause trouble, the blower having to be run faster to 
make up for leakage, which is only waste of power, and, as the 
pressure in the blast-pipe increases, the escape is also in pro- 
portion : therefore it will be impossible to force through tlie 
furnace the requisite amount of air. Diameter of blast-pipes 
sliould be in proportion to the size of cupola, so that the air 
delivered xnay not be forced to travel faster through the pipes 
than sixty feet per second. If the pipes exceed fifty feet in 
length, their diameter should be increased somewhat (on account 
of the friction of the air in the pipes). For every additional 
fifty feet it would be well to add one inch to the diameters 
given above." — Baker. 



318 



AREAS OF TUYERES AND BLAST TIPES. 



BAKER'S TABLE. 

Giving the Diameter of Main Blast-Pipes for all Cupolas ranging from 
18" to 84" inside diameter. Length of Pipes to be 50 feet. 



Diameter 


Diameter 


Diameter 


Diameter 


Diameter 


Diameter 


OP 


OP 


OP 


OP 


OP 


OP 


Cupolas. 


Pipe. 


COPOLAS. 


Pipe. 


Cupolas. 


Pipe. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


18 


5 


41 


Hi 


63 


171 


19 


H 


42 


111 


64 


18 


20 


5| 


43 


12 


65 


18i 


21 


6 


44 


m 


66 


18i 


22 


H 


45 


12| 


67 


18f 


23 


H 


46 


13 


68 


19 


24 


6| 


47 


m 


69 


19i 


25 


7 


48 


13^ 


70 


19f 


26 


n 


49 


13| 


71 


20 


27 


7| 


50 


14 


72 


20J 


28 


8 


51 


14i 


73 


20i 


29 


8i 


52 


14f 


74 


20i 


30 


H 


53 


15 


75 


21 


31 


8f 


54 


15i 


76 


2H 


32 


9 


55 


15i 


77 


21| 


33 


9i 


56 


15| 


78 


22 


34 


9i 


57 


16 


79 


22i 


35 


9f 


58 


m 


80 


22i 


36 


10 


59 


16i 


81 


22| 


37 


10^ 


60 


16| 


82 


23 


38 


lOf 


61 


17 


83 


23^ 


39 


11 


62 


in 


84 


24 


40 


in 











To complete this chapter, the author will give his original 
formulas for finding the area of the tuyeres for different diame- 
ter cupolas, etc. 

The first is the maximum area advisable, and is simply to 
construct tuyeres of such area that their sum shall he twenty- 
five per cent of the average area of the cupola, calculated ou 



AREAS OF TUYERES AND HLAST PIPES. 319 

its inside diameter. This would give a 40" cupola six 8^^" 
round, or a 2^" open flat continuous tuyere. 

To find the medium area of tuyere : Divide the area of the 
cupola by 9. This gives an*'Area of tuyere of 11^ per cent of 
that contained in a cupola ; and gives a 40" cupola six 5f" 
round, or a 1^" open flat continuous tuyere. 

To find the minimum area of tuyere : Divide the area of 
the mipola by 20. This gives an area of tuyere of 5 per cent of 
that contained in a cupola ; and would give a 40" cupola six 
3|" round, or a ^" open flat continuous tuyere. 

To find tuyere areas ranging from medium up to maximum, 
the ratio would of course increase in per cent by decreasing the 
divisor. The figure 8, used for a divisor, would give \2\ per 
cent; 7 would give 14f per cent; 6 would give 16f per cent; 
5 would give 20 per cent. 

To find area of tuyeres ranging from medium down to mini- 
mum, the divisors would of course increase from 10 up to 19. 

The 40" cupola is used as an illustration of the different 
areas of the tuyeres resulting from these formulas ; but if the 
first formula were employed, and the tuyeres were round, it 
would be better to increase the number of tuyeres to seven or 
eight, as this will give a smaller diameter to each, and distribute 
the blast more evenly around the cupola, — a point worth con- 
sidering in designing a cupola. 

When, by any of the above formulas, the tuyere area is 
obtained, it will then be divided by whatever number of tuyeres 
are desired. Then, if the tuyeres are intended to be round, 
square, or flat, the dimensions of the tuyere can be readily 
found by referring to page 322, containing the areas and circum- 
ferences of circles and squares. .Should the tuyere be of other 
shape, the subdivided areas would then require special figuring 
to obtain the dimensions of the form of tuyere desired. 

With reference to which of the above formulas it is best to 
adopt, the reader is recommended to consider the conditions 



320 AREAS OF TUYERES AND BLAST PIPES. 

referred to in the fore-part of this chapter, and adopt that one 
best suiting the requirements of the intended cupola. Tlie 
medium area of tuyere found with the divisor 9 is the formula 
recommended for general conditions of light or medium heats, 
and under no conditions is the minimum tuyere area found 
with the divisor 20 to be used other than in shortest of heats. 
The maximum area will be found to work best where all coke 
is used in cupolas running heavy or long heats. 

It is to be remarked that the best smaller tuyere area one 
can use in meeting all conditions, the more fuel should be 
saved. 

The form of tuyeres is often of secondary importance to the 
question of having them of the right area, evenly divided, and 
of proper height above the bottom of the cupola; this last 
element being regulated by the class of fuel used and castings 
made (points which are discussed on p. 308, vol. i.). 

In the first volume, a few expressions may seem, to some, 
not to fully harmonize with all that this volume contains upon 
the inexhaustible subject of melting iron. The trouble, if 
closely examined, will be found to be that the space there 
would not permit a full discussion of all tiie details, and there- 
fore the reader was often left to draw his own conclusions. 
However, the author hopes that his continued study and ex- 
periments since vol. i. was last issued, as shown herein, will 
prove progressive, and give his readers data and information 
that will be of practical value in the construction and manag- 
ing of cupolas. 



AREAS OF CUPOLAS AND TUYERE6. 



321 



TABLE OF CUPOLA AND TUYERE AREAS, 

Showing the ratio of the area of tuyeres to that of the cupolas. 









Percent 








Percent 


Page. 


Cupola 
Area. 


Tuyere 
Area. 


op 
Tuyere 
TO Cupo- 
la Area. 


Page. 


Cupola 
Area. 


Tdtkrb 
Area. 


OF 

Tuyere 
TO Cupo- 
la Area. 


330 


1521 


174 


11.44 


353 


661 


108 


16.34 


331 


452 


96 


21.24 


354 


1018 


100 


9.82 


332 


1521 


132 


8.67 


355 


2177 


234 


10.75 


333 


1964 


200 


10.18 


356 


707 


84 


11.88 


334 


530 


120 


22.64 


357 


1257 


152 


12.09 


335 


616 


84 


13.63 


358 


962 


50 


5.19 


336 


1582 


118 


7.46 


359 


491 


39 


7.94 


337 


908 


60 


6.6 


360 


908 


96 


10.57 


338 


2940 


328 


11.15 


.361 


1963* 


178* 


9.06 


339 


1810 


96 


5.3 


.361 


1963 1 


225 t 


11.46 


340 


1134 


124 


10.93 


362 


855 


48 


5.61 


341 


1809 


246 


13.6 


363 


1075 


63 


5.86 


342 


1662 


144 


8.66 


364 


2290 


100 


4.37 


343 


1320 


110 


8..33 


365 


706 


39 


5.52 


344 


4646 


261 


5.61 


366 


1257 


202 


16.07 


345 


855 


73 


8.54 


.367 


530 


163 


30.75 


346 


2290 


120 


5.24 


368 


2463 


150 


6.09 


347 


2290 


477 


20.83 


369 


531 


42 


7.9 


348 


1018 


188 


18.46 


370 


661 


80 


12.1 


349 


1385 


92 


6.64 


371 


707 


48 


6.79 


350 [ 1257 


72 


5.73 


372 


380 


29 


7.63 


351 ' 1134 


136 


12. 


373 


804 


78 


9.7 


352 1735 


75 


4.32 


374 
375 


908 
415 


87 
50 


9.58 
12.04 


Illustrated Cup 


3LAS. 


Cuyahoga 




274 


1256 


184 


14.65 


Globe 




274 


1256 


78 


6.21 


Pratt & Whitney . . 




278 


1572 


222 


14.12 


Callahan & Dearmon . 




292 


1452 


306 


21.07 


National Work 


s 




294 
296 

298 


707 

1810 

909 


58 

166 

99 


8.2 
9.17 
10.9 


Niles Tool Wor 


ks . . 




Chene 


y • • 







* Car-wheel department, 
■f Machinery department. 



322 



AREAS OF CIRCLES AND SQUARES. 



A TABLE 

CONTAINING THE CIRCUMFERENCE AND AREAS OF CIR- 
CLES; ALSO, THE AREAS OF SQUARES. 

Advancing by i" from 1" to 100". 



•St ° 
S O 


Ciicurii- 


Area of 


Area of 


2 t 
c 2 


Cireum- 


Area of 


A rca of 


1^ 


ference. 


Circles. 


Squares. 


S ^ 

5 ° 


fereuce. 


Circles. 


Squares. 


1 


3.1416 


.78.54 


1. 


7 


21.0912 


38.4846 


49. 


U 


3.9270 


1.2272 


1.5625 


7i- 


22.7766 


41.2826 


52.5625 


H 


4.7124 


1.7671 


2.25 


^ 


23.5620 


44.1787 


56.25 


n 


5.4978 


2.4053 


3.0625 


7i 


24.3474 


47.1731 


60.0625 


2 


6.2832 


3.1416 


4. 


8 


25.1328 


50.2656 


64. 


21 


7.0686 


3.9761 


5.0625 


8i 


25.9182 


53.4.563 


68.0625 


2i 


7.8540 


4.9087 


6.25 


8i 


26.7036 


56.7451 


72.25 


2| 


8.6394 


5.9396 


7.5625 


8i 


27.4890 


60.1322 


76.5625 


o 


9.4248 


7.0686 


9. 


9 


28.2744 


63.6174 


81. 


3i 


10.2102 


8.2958 


10.5625 


9i 


29.0598 


67.2008 


85.. 5625 


H 


10.9956 


9.6211 


12.25 


n 


29.8452 


76.8823 


90.25 


3| 


11.7810 


11.0447 


14.0625 


9f 


30.6306 


74.6621 


95.0625 


4 


12.5664 


12.5664 


16. 


10 


31.4160 


78.54 


100. 


4i 


13.3518 


14.1863 


18.0625 


m 


32.2014 


82.5161 


105.0625 


4i 


14.1372 


15.9043 


20.25 


10^ 


32.9868 


86.5903 


110.25 


4| 


14.9226 


17.7206 


22.5625 


lOf 


33.7722 


90.7628 


11.5.5625 


5 


15.7080 


19.635 


25. 


11 


34.-5576 


95.0334 


121. 


H 


16.4934 


21.6476 


27.5625 


iH 


35.. 34.30 


99.4022 


126.5625 


H 


17.2788 


23.7583 


30.25 


IH 


36.1284 


103.8691 


132.25 


5| 


18.0642 


25.9673 


33.0625 


iif 


36.9138 


108.4343 


138.0625 


6 


18.8496 


28.2744 


36. 


12 


37.6992 


113.098 


144. 


6i 


19.6350 


.30.6797 


39.0625 


12i 


38.4846 


117.859 


150,0625 


6^ 


20.4204 


33.ia31 


42.25 


12^ 


39.2700 


122.719 


156.25 


6f 


21.2058 


35.7848 


45.5625 


12f 


40.0554 


127.677 


162.5625 



AREAS OF CIRCLES AND SQUARES. 



323 



CIRCUMFERENCE AND AREAS OF CIRCLES ; ALSO, THE 
AREAS OF SQUARES, — Cort(i»iMed. 



2 S 


Circum- 


Area of 


Area of 




Circum- 


Area of 


Area of 


S - 
1 ° 


ference. 


Circles. 


Squares. 


S '- 
a b 

5 ° 


fereuce. 


Circles. 


Squares. 


n 


40.8408 


132.733 


169. 


21 


65.7936 


346.361 


441. 


iH 


41.6262 


137.887 


175.5625 


21i 


66.7590 


354.657 


451.5625 


13i 


42.4116 


143.139 


182.25 


2Ii 


67.5444 


363.051 


462.25 


13| 


43.1970 


148.49 


189.0625 


21| 


68.3298 


371.543 


473.0625 


14 


43.9824 


153.9.38 


196. 


22 


69.1152 


380.134 


484. 


^H 


44.7676 


159.485 


203.0625 


22i 


69.9006 


388.822 


495.0625 


iH 


45.5532 


165.13 


210.25 


22i 


70.6860 


397.609 


506.25 


14| 


46.3386 


170.874 


217.5625 


22| 


71.4714 


406.494 


517.5625 


15 


47.1240 


176.715 


225. 


23 


72.2568 


415.477 


529. 


15i 


47.9094 


182.655 


2.32.5625 


2Sl 


73.0422 


424.558 


540.5625 


15i 


48.6948 


188.692 


240.25 


23i 


73.8276 


433.737 


552.25 


15| 


49.4802 


194.828 


248.0625 


23| 


74.0130 


443.015 


564.0625 


U) 


50.2656 


201.062 


256. 


24 


75,3984 


452.39 


576. 


m 


51.0510 


207.395 


264.0625 


24i 


76.1838 


461.864 


588.0625 


mi 


51.8364 


213.825 


272.25 


m 


76.9692 


471.436 


600.25 


16| 


52.6218 


220.354 


280.5625 


24| 


77.7546 


481.107 


612.5625 


17 


53.4072 


226.981 


289. 


25 


78.5400 


490.875 


625. 


m 


54.1926 


233.706 


297.5625 


25J 


79. ,3254 


500.742 


637.5625 


Hi 


54.9780 


240.529 


306.25 


25^ 


80.1108 


510.706 


650.25 


ITf 


55.7634 


247.45 


315.0625 


25| 


80.8962 


520.769 


663.0625 


IS 


56.5488 


254.47 


324. 


26 


81.6816 


530.93 


676. 


m 


57.3342 


261.587 


333.0625 


26i 


82.4670 


.541.19 


689.0625 


m 


.58.1196 


268.803 


;«2.25 


26^ 


83.2524 


.551.547 


702.25 


m 


58.9056 


276.117 


351.5625 


26| 


84.0378 


562.003 


715.5625 


19 


59.6904 


283.529 


361. 


27 


84.8232 


572.557 


729. 


m 


60.4758 


291.04 


370.5625 


27i 


85.6086 


583.209 


742.5625 


m 


61.2612 


298.648 


380.25 


27i 


86.3940 


593.959 


7.56.25 


19| 


62.0466 


306.355 


390.0625 


27| 


87.1794 


604.807 


770.0625 


20 


62.8320 


314.16 


400. 


28 


87.9648 


615.754 


784. 


20^ 


63.6174 


322.063 


410.0625 


28i 


88.7502 


626.798 


798.0625 


20^ 


64.4028 


330.064 


420.25 


2SJ 


89.5356 


6.37.941 


812.25 


20| 


65.1882 


.338.164 


430. .5625 


28| 


90.3210 


649.182 


826.5625 



324 



AKEAS OF CIRCLES AND SQUARES. 



CIRCUMFEKENCE AND AKEAS OF CIRCLES ; ALSO, THE 
AREAS OF SQVAHES, — Continued. 





Circum- 


Area of 


Area of 


Li 

S S 


Circum- 


Area of 


Area of 


E - 

5 = 


ference. 


Circles. 


Squares. 


a "- 

5^ 


ference. 


Circles. 


Squaree. 


29 


9L1064 


660.521 


841. 


37 


116.2392 


1075.213 


1369. 


29i 


&L8918 


671.959 


855.562 


37J 


117.0246 


1089.792 


1387.562 


29^ 


92.6772 


683.494 


870.25 


37i 


117.8100 


1104.469 


1406.25 


29| 


93.4626 


695.128 


885.062 


37 1 


118.5954 


1119.244 


1425.062 


30 


94.2480 


706.86 


900. 


38 


119..3808 


1134.118 


1444. 


30^ 


95.0334 


718.69 


915.062 


381- 


120.1662 


1149.089 


1463.062 


m 


95.8188 


730.618 


930.25 


38| 


120.9516 


1164.159 


1482.25 


30| 


96.6042 


742.645 


945.562 


38| 


121.7370 


1179.327 


1501.562 


31 


97.3896 


754.769 


961. 


39 


122.5224 


1194.593 


1521. 


3H 


98.1750 


766.992 


976.562 


39i 


123.3078 


1209.958 


1540.562 


3U 


98.9684 


779.313 


992.25 


39^ 


124.0932 


1225.42 


1560.25 


31| 


99.7458 


791.732 


1008.062 


39| 


124.8780 


1240.981 


1580.062 


32 


100.5312 


804.25 


1024. 


40 


125.6640 


12.56.64 


1600. 


32i 


101.3166 


816.865 


1040.062 


40i 


126.4494 


1272.397 


1620.062 


32i 


102.1020 


829.579 


1056.25 


40^ 


127.2.348 


1288.2.52 


1640.25 


32f 


102.8874 


842.391 


1072.562 


40| 


128.0202 


1304.206 


1660.562 


33 


103.6728 


855.301 


1089. 


41 


128.8056 


1320.257 


1681. 


33i 


104.4582 


868.309 


1105.. 562 


4U 


129.5910 


1336.407 


1701.562 


33^ 


105.24.36 


881.415 


1122.25 


4U 


130.3764 


1352.655 


1722.25 


33f 


106.0290 


894.62 


1139.062 


41f 


131.1618 


1369.001 


1743.062 


34 


106.8144 


907.922 


11.56. 


42 


131.9472 


1385.45 


1764. 


m 


107.5998 


921.. 323 


1173.062 


42^ 


1.32.7326 


1401.99 


1785.062 


34^ 


108.3852 


934.822 


1190.25 


42i 


1.3.3.5180 


1418.63 


1806.25 


34| 


109.1706 


948.42 


1207.5()2 


42f 


134.3034 


1435.37 


1827.562 


35 


109.9560 


962.115 


1225. 


43 


135.0888 


1452.2 


1849. 


35J 


110.7414 


975.909 


1242.. 562 


43i 


135.8742 


1469.14 


1870.562 


SH 


111.5268 


989.8 


1260.25 


m 


136.6596 


1486.17 


1892.25 


35f 


112.3122 


1003.79 


1278.0(52 


43| 


137.4450 


1503.3 


1914.062 


36 


113.0976 


1017.878 


1296. 


44 


138.2308 


1520.53 


1936. 


36i 


113.8830 


1032.065 


1314.062 


44} 


1.39.0158 


1537.86 


1958.062 


36| 


114.6684 


1046.349 


1.332.25 


44i 


1.39.8012 


1555.29 


1980.25 


3(i| 


115.4.5.38 


1060.732 


13.50..562 


44f 


140.5866 


1.572.81 


2002. .5()2 



AREAS OF CHICLES AND SQUARES. 



P.O.' 



CIRCUMFERENCE AND AREAS OF CIRCLES ; ALSO, THE 
AREAS OF SQUARES, — Con/(HMe(i. 



4> ^ 

a o 


Circum- 


Area of 


Area of 




Circura- 


Area of 


Area of 


a 2 
5 ° 


ference. 


Circles. 


Squares. 


a ° 

CO j^ 

5 =■ 


ference. 


Circles. 


Squares. 


45 


141.3720 


1590.43 


2025. 


53 


166.5048 


2206.19 


2809. 


45} 


142.1574 


1608.16 


2047.562 


53} 


l(i7.2902 


2227.05 


2835.562 


-iryh 


142.9428 


1625.97 


2070.25 


531 


168.0756 


2248.01 


2862.25 


451 


143.7282 


1643.89 


2093.062 


53| 


168.8610 


2269.07 


2889.062 


46 


144.5136 


1661.91 


2116. 


54 


169.6464 


2290.23 


2916. 


4fii 


145.2990 


1680.02 


2139.062 


54} 


170.4318 


2311.48 


2943.062 


m 


146.0844 


1698.23 


2162.25 


54^ 


171.2172 


2332.83 


2970.25 


46f 


146.8608 


1716.54 


2185.562 


54f 


172.0026 


2354.29 


2997.562 


47 


147.6552 


1734.95 


2209. 


55 


172.7880 


2375.83 


3025. 


47i 148.4406 


1753.45 


2232.562 


55} 


173.5734 


2397.48 


3052.562 


47| 149.2260 


1772.00 


2256.25 


m 


174.3588 


2419.23 


3080.25 


47| 


150.0114 


1790.76 


2280.062 


55| 


175.1442 


2441.07 


3108.062 


48 


150.7968 


1809.56 


2.304. 


56 


175.9290 


2463.01 


3136. 


48i 


151.5822 


1828.46 


2328.062 


56} 


176.7150 


2485.05 


3164.062 


48i 


152.3676 


1847.46 


2352.25 


56^ 


177.5004 


2507.19 


3192.25 


48| 


153.1530 


1866.55 


2376.562 


56| 


178.2858 


2529.43 


3220.562 


40 


153.9384 


1885.75 


2401. 


57 


179.0712 


2551.76 


3249. 


49} 


154.7238 


1905.04 


2425., 562 


57} 


179.8566 


2574.2 


3277.562 


49^ 


155.5002 


1924.43 


2450.25 


571 


180.6420 


2596.73 


3306.25 


49| 


156.2946 


1943.91 


2475.062 


57f 


181.4274 


2619.36 


3335.062 


50 


157.0800 


1963.5 


2500. 


58 


182.2128 


2642.09 


3364. 


50i 


157.8654 


1983.18 


2525.062 


58} 


182.9982 


2664.91 


3393.062 


50i 


158.6508 


2002.97 


2550.25 


58| 


183.7836 


2087.84 


3422.25 


50f 


159.4362 


2022.85 


2575.562 


58f 


184.5690 


2710.86 


3451.562 


51 


160.2216 


2042.83 


2601. 


59 


185.3544 


2733.98 


3481. 


51i 


161.0070 


2062.9 


2626.562 


59} 


186.1398 


2757.2 


3510.562 


oil 


161.7924 


2083.08 


2652.25 


59i 


186.9252 


2780.51 


3540.25 


51| 


162..5778 


2103.35 


2678.062 


59f 


187.7106 


2803.93 


3570.062 


52 


163.3632 


2123.72 


2704. 


60 


188.4960 


2827.44 


3600. 


52} 


164.1486 


2144.19 


2730.062 


60} 


189.2814 


2851.05 


3630.062 


521 


164.9340 


2164.76 


2756.25 


601 


189.0668 


2874.76 


3660.25 


52| 


165.7194 


2185.42 


2782.562 


60| 


190.8522 


2898.57 


3690.562 



826 



AREAS OF CIRCLES AND SQUARES. 



CIRCUMFERENCE AND AREAS OF CIRCLES ; ALSO, THE 
AREAS OF SqV ARES, — Continued. 



3 *; 

S 


Circum- 


Area of 


Area of 


rt 


Circum- 


Area of 


Area of 


S u 
.2 •- 
° 


ference. 
191.6876 


Circles. 


Squares. 


a s 


ference. 


Circles. 


Squares. 


61 


2922.47 


3721. 


69 


216.7704 


3739.29 


4761. 


6H 


192.42.30 


2946.48 


3751.562 


69i 


217.5558 


3766.43 


4795.562 


61i 


193.2084 


2970. .58 


3782.25 


69^ 


218.3412 


3793.68 


4830.25 


61| 


193.9938 


2994.78 


.3813.062 


69| 


219.1266 


3821.02 


4865.062 


02 


194.7792 


3019.08 


3844. 


70 


219.9120 


3848.46 


4900. 


62i 


195. .5646 


3043.47 


3875.062 


70i 


220.6974 


3876 


4935.062 


62^ 


196.3500 


3067.97 


3906.25 


101 


221.4828 


3903.63 


4970.25 


62| 


197.1354 


.3092.56 


3937.562 


70| 


222.2682 


39.31.. 37 


5005.562 


63 


197.9208 


3117.25 


3969. 


71 


223.0536 


3959.2 


5041. 


63J 


198.7062 


3142.04 


4000. .562 


7H 


223.8390 


3987.13 


5076.562 


631 


199.4916 


3166.93 


4032.25 


71| 


224.6244 


4015.16 


5112.25 


63f 


200.2770 


3191.91 


4064.062 


71f 


225.4098 


4043.29 


5148.062 


64 


201.0624 


3217 


4096. 


72 


226.1952 


4071.51 


5184. 


64^ 


201.8478 


3242.18 


4128.062 


72|- 


226.9806 


4099.84 


5220.062 


64^ 


202.6332 


3267.46 


4160.25 


72i 


227.7660 


4128.20 


5256.25 


64| 


203.4186 


3292.84 


4192.562 


72f 


228.5514 


41,56.78 


5292.562 


65 


204.2040 


3318.31 


4225. 


73 


229.3368 


4185.4 


5329. 


65^ 


204.9894 


3343.89 


4257.562 


73i 


230.1222 


4214.11 


5365.562 


65^ 


205.7748 


3369.56 


4290.25 


1^ 


230.9076 


4242.93 


5402.25 


65| 


206.5602 


3395.33 


4323.062 


73f 


231.0930 


4271.84 


5439.062 


66 


207.3456 


3421.2 


4356. 


74 


232.4784 


4300.85 


5476. 


66i 


208.1310 


3447.17 


4389.062 


74i 


233.2638 


4329.90 


5513.062 


66^ 


208.9164 


3473.24 


4422.25 


m 


234.0492 


4359.17 


5550.25 


66| 


209.7018 


3499.4 


4455.562 


74f 


234.8346 


4388.47 


5587.562 


67 


210.4872 


3525.66 


4489. 


75 


235.6200 


4417.87 


5625. 


67i 


211.2726 


3552.02 


4522.562 


75i 


236.40.54 


4447.38 


5662.562 


61k 


212.0580 


3578.48 


4556.25 


751 


237.1908 


4470.98 


5700.25 


67f 


212.8434 


3605.04 


4590.062 


75f 


237.9702 


4506.67 


5738.062 


68 


213.6288 


3631.69 


4624. 


76 


238.7616 


4536.47 


5776. 


6S^ 


214.4142 


3658.44 


4658.062 


76i 


239.5470 


4500.30 


5814.002 


68^ 


215.1996 


3685.29 


4(592.25 


76^ 


240.3324 


4590.30 


5852.25 


68| 


215.9850 


3712.24 


4726.562 


76f 


241.1178 


4020.45 


5890.562 



AREAS OF CIRCLES AMD SQUARES. 



327 



CIRCUMFERENCE AND AREAS OF CIRCLES ; ALSO, THE 
AREAS OF SQUARES, — Continued. 





Circum- 


Area of 


Area of 


1 s 


Circum- 


Area of 


Area of 


.a '^ 


ference. 


Circles. 


Squares. 


e s 

.2 i- 


ference. 


Circles. 


Squares. 


77 


24L9032 


4656.64 


5929. 


85 


267.0.360 


.5674.51 


7225. 


77i 


242.6886 


4686.92 


5967.562 


85J 


267.8214 


5707.94 


7267.562 


77^ 


248.4740 


4717.31 


6006.25 


851 


268.6068 


5741.47 


7310.25 


771 


244,2594 


4747.79 


6045.062 


85| 


269.3922 


5775.1 


7353.062 


78 


24.5.0448 


4778.37 


6084. 


m 


270.1776 


5808.82 


7396. 


7Si 


245.8302 


4809.05 


6123.062 


86^ 


270.9630 


5842.64 


7439.062 


7Si 


246.61.56 


4839.83 


6162.25 


86^ 


271.7484 


5876.56 


7482.25 


78| 


247.4010 


4870.71 


6201.562 


86 1 


272. .5338 


.59 10. .58 


7525.562 


79 


248.1864 


4901.68 


6241. 


87 


273.3192 


5944.69 


7569. 


79i 


248.9718 


4932.75 


6280.562 


87i 


274. 1046 


.5978.91 


7612.562 


m 


249.7572 


4963.92 


6320.25 


871 


274.8900 


0013.22 


7656.25 


79f 


250.5426 


4995.19 


6360.062 


87f 


275.6754 


6047.(53 


7700.062 


80 


251.3280 


5026.56 


6400. 


88 


276.4608 


6082.14 


7744. 


m 


252.1134 


5058.03 


6440.062 


88i 


277.2462 


6116.74 


7788.062 


m 


252.8988 


5089.59 


(5480.25 


881 


278.0316 


6151.45 


7832.25 


80f 


2.53.6842 


5121.25 


6520.562 


88| 


278.8170 


6186.25 


7876.562 


81 


2.54.4696 


51.53.01 


6561. 


89 


279.6024 


6221.15 


7921. 


su 


255.2.550 


5184.87 


6601.562 


89^ 


280.3878 


6256.15 


7965.562 


8H 


2.56.0404 


5216.82 


6^42.25 


891 


281.1732 


6291.25 


8010.25 


81f 


256.8258 


5248.88 


6683.062 


89| 


281.9586 


6326.45 


8055.062 


82 


257.6112 


5281.03 


6724. 


90 


282.7440 


(3361.74 


8100. 


82i 


258.3966 


5313.28 


6765.062 


90i 


28;3.5294 


6397.13 


8145.062 


82i 


259.1820 


5345.63 


6806.25 


901 


284.3148 


6432.62 


8190.25 


82f 


2.59.9674 


5378.08 


6847.562 


90f 


285.1002 


64(58.21 


8235.562 


83 


260.7528 


5410.62 


6889. 


91 


285.8856 


6503.9 


8281. 


83^ 


261..5382 


5443.26 


6930.562 


91i 


286.6710 


6.5.39.68 


8326.562 


8:]i 


262.32.36 


5476.01 


6972.25 


91i 


287.4.564 


(5575.56 


8372.25 


84 


263.1090 


5508.84 


7014.062 


91f 


288.2418 


6611..55 


8418.062 


84 


263.8944 


5.541.78 


7056. 


92 


289.0272 


6647.63 


8464. 


84i 


264.6798 


5574.82 


7098.062 


92J 


289.8125 


6683.8 


8510.062 


84^ 


265.4652 


5607.95 


7140.25 


02i 


290.5980 


6720.08 


8556.25 


84f 




2(!(i.25(Mi 


5641.18 


7182..562 


92| 


291. .3834 


6756.45 


8602.562 



8i28 



AREAS OF CHICLES AMD SQUARES. 



CIRCUMFERENCE AND AREAS OF CIRCLES ; ALSO, THE 
AREAS OF SQU AliES, — Concluded. 



Il 


Circum- 


Area of 


Area of 


1 § 


Circum- 


Area of 


Area of 


a 2 
5 « 


ference. 


Circles. 


Squares. 


a £: 
.2 I- 


ference. 


Circles. 


Squares. 


93 


292.1688 


6792.92 


8649. 


96f 


303.9498 


7351.79 


9360.562 


93^ 


292.9542 


6829.49 


8695.562 


97 


304.7352 


7389.83 


9409. 


93^ 


293.7396 


6866.16 


8742.25 


97J 


305.. 5206 


7427.97 


9457.562 


93f 


294.5350 


6902.93 


8789.062 


97^ 


306.3060 


7466.21 


9506.25 


94 


295.3104 


69.39.79 


8836. 


971 


.307.0914 


7504.55 


9555.062 


94J 


296.0958 


6976.76 


8883.062 


98 


307.8768 


7542.98 


9604. 


94^ 


296.8812 


7013.82 


8930.25 


98i 


.308.6622 


7581.52 


9653.062 


94f 


297.6666 


7050.98 


8977.562 


98i 


309.4476 


7620.15 


9702.25 


95 


298.4520 


7088.23 


9025. 


98| 


310.2330 


7658.88 


9751.. 562 


9oJ 


299.2374 


7125.59 


9072.562 


99 


311.0184 


7697.71 


9801. 


95^ 


300.0228 


7163.04 


9120.25 


99i 


311.8038 


7736.63 


9850.562 


95| 


300.8082 


7200.6 


9168.062 


99^ 


312.5892 


7775.66 


9900.25 


96 


301.5936 


72.38.25 


9216. 


99f 


313.3746 


7814.78 


9950.062 


96i 


302.3790 


7275.99 


9264.062 


100 


314.1600 


7854. 


10000. 


96i 


303.1644 


7313.84 


9312.25 











Not only are the above tables of aiieas for circles and squares 
useful for the purpose referred to on p. 319, but also in figuring 
weights of castings ; for in the case of desired weights for square 
or round plates not to he found in vol. i., referring to the above 
table will save the necessity' of first figuring to obtain their 
areas before they can be multiplied by the weight of a cubic 
inch of iron as seen in vol. i. pp. 370, 376. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



The following forty-six reports of cupola-workings have been 
carefully collected by the author from thirty States, reaching 
from Maine to Oregon. The reports will not only be found 
interesting, but very valuable to consult ; giving, as they do, 
so many different men's ideas and practice in mixing and melt- 
ing iron. In selecting the firms shown, those were chosen that 
the author thought used intelligence and system in their prac- 
tice. These reports the author believes to be a practical 
account of the cupola-workings of the respective firms. 

Each firm's name, and the line of castings made, are given 
solely for the purpose of attaching authority to the reports, 
and to enable foundrymen to classify the workings with their 
own or intended class of work or castings. 

In collecting the reports shown, the author would state that 
considerable stress was laid upon obtaining some knowledge of 
the fluidity of the iron melted. I believe the questions were 
conscientiously answered as far as such a thing could practi- 
cally be done. The XXX shown stands for what shops gen- 
erally term " good hot fluid iron ; " the XX stands for a medium 
fluid iron, such as is often suitable for pouring ordinary thick- 
nesses of machinei-y castings. 

When collecting the reports, the length, etc., of blast-pipes 
was also obtained. Only such portions are mentioned as were 
thought to be of service in giving ideas, etc. ; since, to publish 
all the bends and different crooks, etc. , would only be adding 
confusion to the reports. 

The reports as shown argue well for the kind and liberal 
spirit of American foundrymen, in letting their experience and 
practice be known ; and, no doubt, many will feel that they 
should be credited for their liberality shown. In this the author 
heartily coincides. 329 



830 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



PORTLAND, ME. 
COMMON 44" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 64" 

Thickness of lining 5" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 37" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 4fi" 

Inside diameter at cliarging-door 44" 

Height from bottom piate up to bottom of charging-door 10' 

Style of tuyeres: flat, 1^" opening, continuous tuyere. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom uf tuyere 14" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 8" 

A wind-belt, 10" X 10", from which the blast is delivered to the tuyeres, 
encircles the cupola about one-third its circumference. 



Fuel used for bed : coal 


. 1,300 lbs. 


Second charge of coal . 


300 lbs 


First charge of pig . . 


. 2,000 " 


Third charge of pig . . 


1,500 " 


" " scrap . 


. 2,500 " 


" " scrap . 


2,000 " 


" " coal . . 


. 400 " 


" " coal . 


250 " 


Second charge of pig . 


. 1,500 " 


Fourth charge of pig . 


1,000 " 


" " scrap 


. 2,000 " 


" " scrap 


1,500 " 



No. 6 Sturtevant fan: diameter main blast-pipe, 16". Three cupolas are 
connected to this main pipe. 



Time of starting fire . . 12.00 a.m. 
" charging first iron, 1.00 p.m. 
Blast put on 3.45 *' 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 3.55 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.45 " 



Revolutions of blower, 2,200. Kind of fuel used, bed-lump hard coal. 



Amount of iron melted, 14,000 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 2,250 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to GfJu- 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, 2 hours. 



Remarks. — The above heat presents an average working of the cupola 
described. We have two other cupolas, one of which is of same diameter 
as the above; the other is .34" inside diameter, having four tuyeres 8" X 3"; 
distance from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere, 14". This cupola will melt 
three tons per hour. The three cupolas are all fed by the same 16" blast- 
pipe. 

Our iron is melted for making locomotives, marine, architectural, and 
jobbing castings. 

CHARLES H. CARRUTHERS, 
Foreman Portland Locomotive Co.'s Works Foundry 
Oct. 23, 1883. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 331 

PORTSMOUTH, N.H. 

COMMON 24" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 36" 

Thickness of lining 7i" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 24" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 24" 

Inside diameter at cliarging-door 21" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 8' 3" 

Style of tuyeres: four 8" X 3" rectangular tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 16" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 12" 



Fuel used for bed: coal . 400 lbs. 

First charge of pig . . . .500 " 

" " coal ... 40 " 

Second charge of pig . . 1,000 " 



Second charge of coal . . 40 lbs. 

Third charge of scrap . . 500 " 

coal . . 20 " 

Fourth charge of scrap . 1,150 " 



No. 4 Sturtevant; diameter main blast-pipe, 10". Cupola to blower, 130'; 
six elbows before it enters cupola. 



Time of starting fire . . 12.00 a.m. 
" charging first iron, 1.30 p.m. 
Blast put on 2.35 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 2.42 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... .^.40 " 



Revolutions of blower, 2,700. Kind of fuel used, Lehigh coal. 

TOTALS. 

Amount of iron melted, 3,150 lbs. I Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 6^. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 500 " Length of heat, Ih. 5m. 

Remarks. — The work made is general jobbing castings. 

JOSEPH W. HUSE, 
Foreman Portsmouth Machine Co.'s Works Foundry 
Dec. 12, 1883. 



332 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



BOSTON, MASS. 
COLLIAU 44" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 61" 

Thickness of lining 8J" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 44'^ 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 46" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 44" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 12' 

Style of tuyeres: two rows of tuyeres, six above and six below; 

bottom row, 5" X 3": top row, 3" diameter. 
Height from bottom plate to bottom of lower tuyere, 20"; to upper 



Height of lower tuj'ere above sand bottom on back side . . . 


. . 14" 


Height from bottom plate to bottom of slaff-hole 


. . 18" 


Fuel used for bed: coke . 1,400 lbs. 


Fourth charge of coke . 


260 lbs. 


First charge of iron . . 


4,000 " 


Fifth charge of iron . . 


2,500 " 


" " coke . . 


200 " 


" " coke 


260 " 


Second charge of iron . 


2,500 " 


Sixth charge of iron . . 


2,500 " 


" " coke . 


200 " 


" " coke 


260 " 


Third charge of iron 


2,500 " 


Seventh charge of iron . 


2,500 " 


" " coke . 


200 '• 


" " coke 


260 " 


Fourth charge of iron . 


2,500 " 


Eighth charge of iron . 


2,500 " 



Eight more charges, continued per order shown. 

No. 7 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 12". Cupola 22' from 
blower. 
Time of starting fire . . 12.00 a.m. First appearance of fluid 

" charging first iron, 1.00 p.m. iron 2.55 p.m. 

Blast put on 2.40 " Bottom dropped .... 7.05 " 

Revolutions of blower, 2,500. Pressure of blast, 6^ ounces. Kind of fuel 
used, Connellsville coke. Kind of flux used, limestone. 



TOTALS. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, 4h. 25m. 



Amount of iron melted . 41,500 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 5,.300 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 7-]\h- 

Remarks. — Our iron is poured into architectural and light house-work 
moulds. The )a.st of the iron was just as hot as the first of the heat. We 
use limestone on every charge. After casting five tons, we let out the slag, 
and very seldom close the slag-hole after it is opened. 

JOHN FARRER, 
Foreman G. W. & F. Smitfi's Iron Works Foundry. 
March 20, 1884. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



333 



HOLYOKE, MASS. 
COMMON 50" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 66" 

Thickness of lining 7^" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 50" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 50" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 50" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door .... 12' 3" 
Style of tuyeres : five tuyeres, 10" X 5", at inside ; 1" x 5" where it joins 
the blast-pipes. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 15" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 10" 



Fuel used for bed: coal 


1,800 lbs. 


Fourth charge of acrap . 


First charge of pig . . 


3,000 " 


" " coal . 


" " scrap 


2,500 " 


Fifth charge of pig . . 


" " coal . . 


400 " 


" " scrap . 


Second charge of pig . 


2,500 " 


" " coal . . 


" " scrap. 


1,500 " 


Sixth charge of pig . . 


" " coal . 


400 " 


" " scrap . 


Third charge of pig . . 


4,500 " 


" " coal . . 


" " coal . . 


400 " 


Seventh charge of scrap 


Fourth charge of pig 


3,000 " 





1,500 
400 

2,200 

1,800 
400 
500 

4,000 
400 

4,000 



lbs. 



No. 5^ Baker blower; diameter main blast-pipe, 16". 

Time of starting fire . . 12.30 p.m. j First appearance of fluid 

" charging first iron, 2.00 " iron 3.30 p.m. 

Blast put on 3.15 " | Bottom dropped .... 6.00 " 



Amount of iron melted, 31,000 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 4,200 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 7 v',ni. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XX. 
Length of beat, 2h. 45m. 



Remarks. — Our iron is used for turbine-wheels and mill-machinery 
castings. 

W. S. BEECHING, 
Foreman Holyoke Machine Co.'s Works Foundry. 
Oct. 23, 1883. 



S34 



AMERICAN CUPOLA rUACTJCE. 



WORCESTER, MASS. 

COLLI AU 26" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter = ... 42" 

Tliickness of lining 8" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres » 26" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 26" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 26" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 9' 2" 

Style of tuyeres : two rows of tuyeres, six above and six below. 
Lower row, 4" square; upper row, 1^" diameter. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of lower tuyere 22" 

Height of lower tuyere above saud bottom on back side ■ 
Height from bottom plate to bottom of slag-hole 

Third charge of coke 

Fourth charge of pig . 

" " scrap 

" " coke . 

Fifth charge of pig . . 



Fuel used for bed: coke 

First charge of pig . . 

" " scrap . 

" " coke 

Second charge of pig . 

" " scrap 

" " coke. 

Third charge of pig . . 

" " scrap . 

No. 6 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 10". 



500 lbs. 

1,100 " 

400 " 

60 " 

600 " 

600 " 

60 " 

600 " 

600 " 



" " scrap 

" " coke 

Sixth charge of pig . 

" " scrap 





18" 


60 lbs. 


600 


" 


600 


" 


60 




600 


« 


600 


" 


60 


" 


900 


" 


800 


« 



Time of starting fire . . 2.30 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 3.30 " 
Blast put on 4.00 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 4.15 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.30 " 



Revolutions of blower, 2,000 to 2,100. Pressure of blast, 5 ounces. 
Kind of fuel used, Counellsville coke. Kind of flux used, limestone, one 
shovelful to a charge ; but air-slacked lime, or chips from marble-works, 
are just as good as lime to make the slag fluid and easily discharged. 



TOT.ALS. 



Amount of iron melted, 8,000 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 800 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 10. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih, 30m. 



Remarks. — This is a heat taken out of our small cupola. Considering 
the smallness of heat, the showing is not as good as were the heat larger. 
The cupola can be kept in blast as long as one might desire. Our iron is 
hot enough for stove-plate, although we use it for machinery castings. 

J. B. COLVIN, Supt., 
J. A. Colvin Works Foundry, 
Feb. 1,1884. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



886 



SPRINGFiELO, MASS. 
COLLIAU 28" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter • . . 42* 

Thickness of lining . . . , 7" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres .... 28" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter • . . 30" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 28" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door . . 9' 6" 

Style of tuyeres : two rows of tuyeres, six above and six belovr. 
Lower row, 3^" square; upper row, li" diameter. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of lower tuyere 22" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 14" 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of slag-hole . 15" 



Fuel used for bed : coke 


500 lbs. 


Second charge of scrap 


. 800 lbs 


First charge of pig . . 


1,500 " 


" " coke . 


116 « 


" " scrap . . 


500 " 


Third charge of pig . . 


. 700 " 


" " coke . . 


116 " 


" " scrap . 


. 1,881 " 


Second charge of pig . . 


1,500 " 







No. 5 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 8" 



Time of starting fire . . 3.30 p.iM. 

" charging first iron, 4.40 " 
Blast put on 5.00 " 



First appearance of fluid 
iron ...... 5,15 P.M. 

Bottom dropped .... 6.15 " 



Revolutions of blower, 3,150. Pressure of blast, 6 ounces. Kind of fuel 
used, Connellsville coke. Kind of flux used, oyster-shells. 



Amount of iron melted, 6,881 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 7.'^2 " 
Katio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 9nc 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 15m. 



Remarks. — Fifty-five pounds of coke was saved from dropped bottom; 
therefore the ratio of fuel to iron actually consumed would be 1 to lOrniT. 
This heat was an exceptional one for its size. "With a heat of five tons we 
can melt 1 to 10 or 11 with ease. We use our iron for machinery and light 
castings. 

JAMES SIMPSON. 
Foreman Hpnnyjield Foundry Co 
Mat 1, 1883. 



336 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



PROVIDENCE, R.I. 

MACKENZIE 38" X 53" CUPOLA. 

Outside dimension3 62" x 6^" 

Thickness of lining Qy 

Inside dimensions at tuyeres 30" X 44" 

Largest inside or melting-point 38" X 53" 

Inside dimensions at charging-door 40" x 54" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 11' 6" 
Style of tuyeres: flat 1" opening, continuous tuyere. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 12" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 7" 



Fuel used for bed : coal 


1,100 lbs. 


Third charge of coal . 


200 lbs 


First charge of pig . . 


1,400 " 


Fourth charge of pig . 


1,400 " 


" " scrap . 


600 " 


" " scrap 


600 " 


" " coal . . 


200 " 


" " coal . 


200 " 


Second charge of pig . 


1,400 " 


Fifth charge of pig . . 


1,400 " 


" " scrap 


600 " 


" " scrap . 


600 " 


" " coal . 


200 " 


coal. . 


200 " 


Third charge of pig . . 


1,400 " 


Sixth charge of pig . . 


1,400 " 


•♦ " scrap . 


600 " 


" " scrap 


600 " 



No. 4i Baker; diameter main blast-pipe, 12". 



Time of starting fire . . 1.20 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 3.00 " 
Blast put on 4.00 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 4.15 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.25 " 



Revolutions of blower, 140. Pressure of blast, 10 ounces. Kind of fuel 
used, Lehigh coal. Kind of flux used, oyster-shells. 



Amount of iron melted, 12,000 lbs. 
Amoimt of fuel consumed, 2,100 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to Si'cfo. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 25m. 



Remarks. — We make sewing-machines, light machine tools, and cast- 
ings weighing from one ounce up to one ton. Our iron must be good and 
very hot. 

MATTHEW WIARD, 
Foreman Brown & Sharpe Works Foundry 
Nov. 15, 1883. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



337 



WETHERSFIELD, CONN. 
COMMON 33" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 40* 

Thickness of lining 3^" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 33" 

Largest inside or melting-i)oiut diameter 35'' 

Inside diameter at charging-door 33" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 8' 

Style of tuyeres: ten g" X 9h" flat tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 8" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 3" 



Fuel used for bed: coke . 


300 lbs. 


Second charge of coke 


. 100 lbs 


coal . 


400 " 


Third charge of pig . . 


. 500 " 


First charge of pig . . . 


1,500 " 


" " scrap . 


. 1,000 " 


" " scrap . . 


1,000 " 


" " coke . 


. 125 " 


" " coke . . 


100 " 


Fourth charge of pig . 


. 1,000 " 


Second charge of pig . . 


700 " 


" " scrap 


. 1,900 •« 


" " scrap . 


800 " 







No. 6 Sturtevant fan; diameter of main blast-pipe, 10". 



Time of starting fire . . 1.00 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 2.30 " 
Blast put on 3.30 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 3.36 P.M. 

Bottom dropped .... 4.18 " 



Pressure of blast, 14 ounces. Kind of fuel used, Old Company's Lehigh 
lump and Connellsville coke. 



Amount of iron melted, 8,400 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,025 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to Si^^j. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, 48 minutes. 



Remarks. — Fine light-gray iron castings is the class of work which we 
make. Our cupola was designed and built by the undersigned in March, 
1883. Every heat, from the start, has given the highest possible fluidity 
We never plug or tap. The second full hand ladle up to the last dribblings 
must run any of our fine light castings, among which we haA^e a plain 
plate 13" X 18", to" thick. Speed in melting from first iron to last, five net 
tons per hour. Highest speed per minute, 250 pounds; this per hour 7^ 
net tons. 

JOHN HOPSON, Jr., 
President and Treasurer Hopson <fc Chapin Manufacturing Co. 
Oct. 18, 188$. 



338 



AMEItlCAN CUrOLA PRACTICE. 



NEW-YORK CITY. 

MACKENZIE 78"X48" CUPOLA. 

Outside dimensions 

Inside dimensions at tuyeres 

Largest inside or melting-point dimensions 

Inside dimensions at charging-door 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of cbarging-door 
Style of tuyeres: flat, 1^" opening, continuous tuyere. 
Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere .... 
Heiglit of tuyere above sand bottom on back side . . . 



Fuel used for bed: coke 

coal 

First charge of pig . . 

" " scrap . 

" " coke 

" " coal. , 

Second charge of pig . 

" " scrap 

" " coke . 

coal . 

Third charge of pig . . 

" " scrap . 

'■' " coke . 

" " coal . 



600 lbs. 

2,000 " 

3,600 " 

7,500 " 

500 " 

400 " 

2,500 " 

5,000 " 

500 " 

300 " 

2,000 " 

5,000 '* 

500 " 

300 " 



Fourth charge of pig . 

" " scrap 

" " coke . 

" " coal . 

Fifth charge of pig . . 

" " scrap . 

" " coke . 

coal. . 

Sixth charge of pig . . 

" " scrap . 

" " coke . 

coal . 

Seventh charge of pig . 

" " scrap 



88" X 06" 
66" X 36" 
78" X 48" 
78" X 48" 

14" 
10" 

1,500 lbs. 

4,500 " 

500 " 

300 " 

1,500 " 

4,000 " 

500 " 

300 " 

1,500 " 

4,000 " 

500 " 

300 " 

1,500 " 

4,000 " 



No. 6 Mackenzie blower. 



First appearance of fluid 
iron 



3.10 P.M. 



Time of starting fire . . 12.30 p.m. 
" charging first iron, 2.00 " 

Blast put on 3.00 " 

Revolutions of blower, 100. Pressure of blast, column of water 20" high. 

TOTALS. 

48,100 lbs. I Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 6iV 



Amount of iron melted, 
Amount of fuel consumed, 7,500 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 



Remarks. — The scrap we use is A No. 1. All things being favorable, 
and a large crane, ladle under the cujiola, we can melt eight tons per hour. 
When small ladles are used, the blast requires to be greatly decreased, in 
ordt'r to have the iron taken care of. This cupola is capable of melting 
thirty tons. We have another whose capacity is twenty-four tons. We 
charge so as to have our iron hot. Our class of work is all kinds of engines, 
pumps, and machinery castings. 

FREDERICK SIBLEY, 

Foreman Delamater's Iron Works Foundry 
Feb. 15, 1884, 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



330 



YONKERS, N.Y. 

ODD STYLE OF CUPOLA. 

Largest outside diameter ,....,.. 70'' 

Thickness of lining 5" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 30" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 48" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 60" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 8' 

Style of tuyeres: two 4" x 12" oblong tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 16" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side ........ 12" 

Two 10" diameter by 5' long branch pipes convey the blast from the 
main pipe to the tuyeres. 

Fuel used for bed : coal . 1,100 lbs. 

p-irst charge of pig . . . 4,000 " 

" scrap . . 1,000 " 

" " coal ... 400 " 

Second charge of pig . . 3,000 " 

" " scrap . 1,000 " 

No. 6 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 16"; length, 30'. 



Second charge of coal . 


400 lbs 


Third charge of pig . . 


. 3,000 " 


" " scraiJ . 


. 1,000 " 


" " coal . 


300 " 


Fourth charge of scrap 


. 2,800 " 



Time of starting fire . . 1.00 p.m. 
" charging first iron, 3.15 " 

Blast put on 3.45 " 

Revolutions of blower, 2,200. Kind of fuel used, Lehigh coal 
flux used, oyster-shell, at the rate of one peck to one ton of iron. 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 3.53 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 6.35 " 

Kind of 



Amount of iron melted, 15,800 lbs. Fluidity of melted iron, XX. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 2,200 " Length of heat, 2h. 50m. 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to Ty^o- 

Remarks. — The class of work made is elevators, gas-engines, and 
:iiachinery castings. This cupola, in vertical appearance, is somewhat 
like that of a bulged barrel. 4" above the tuyeres it starts a taper that, in 
the height of ."G", increases from 30" to 60" inside diameter. This 60" con- 
tinues in height for ?>6" more; at this point it then commences to decrease, 
and .36" higher up it is again the same diameter as at the tuyeres; this point 
being at stack, the 30" diameter is continued up to end of same. This 
style c f cupola is not to be recommended as a success for long heats, and I 
would give a common straight cupola the preference. 

L. C. JEWETT, 

Foreman Otis Brothers & Co.'s Works Foundiy 
Dec. 15, 1883. 



340 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



SYRACUSE, N.Y. 

COMMON 40" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 63* 

Thickness of lining 8|" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 37" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 42" 

Inside diameter at cbarging-door 36" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door & 

Style of tuyeres: four 6" X 6" triangular tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 11" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side . , 8" 



Fuel used for bed: coal . 1,050 lbs. 

First charge of pig . . . 3,000 " 

" " scrap . . 1,000 " 

" «' coal ... 400 " 



Second charge of pig . . 2,700 lbs. 

" " scrap . 900 " 

" " coal . . 200 " 

Third charge of scrap . . 2,300 " 



No. 7 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 12". 



Time of starting fire . . 1.30 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 3.30 " 
Blast put on 4.20 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 4.27 P.M. 

Bottom dropped .... 6.55 " 



Revolutions of blower, 2,500, Kind of fuel used, Lehigh coal. Kind of 
flux used, tluor spar. 



Amount of iron melted, 9,900 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,650 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 6. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 35m. 



Remarks. — The class of work made is for stationary engines. The 
heat is a small one for the cupola; therefore the percentage is not as high 
as it would be were the heat a larger one. 



Nov. 16, 1883. 



PATRICK EGAN, 
Foreman The Straight Line Engine Go. Foundry, 



AMERICAN rurOLA rP.ACTICE. 



341 



ROCHESTER, N.Y. 

COLLI AU 48" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 62" 

Thickness of lining 7" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 48" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 48" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 48" 

Height from bottom plate np to bottom of charging-door 12' 

Style of tuyeres: two rows of tuyeres; lower row, oblong; upper row, 

round; lower, 9"X 4"; upper, 2^" diameter. 
Height from bottom plate to bottom of lower tuyeres, 24"; to upper 

tuyeres ' 40" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 21" 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of slag-hole 17J" 



Fuel used for bed : coke 1,400 lbs. Second charge of coke . 



First charge of pig . . 


1,515 " 


Third charge of pig . . 


. 1,515 


" " scrap . 


1,852 " 


" " scrap , 


. 1,852 


" " coke . 


240 " 


" " coke . 


. 240 


Second charge of pig . 


1,515 " 


Fourth charge of pig . 


. 1,515 


" " scrap 


1,852 " 


" " scrap 


. 1,852 



240 lbs. 



Seventeen more charges, continued per order shown. 

No. 9 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 14" at blower, 12" at 
cupola. 



Time of starting fire . . 10.10 a.m. 

" charging first iron, 11.20 " 
Blast put on 12.30 p.m. 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 12.35 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 4.45 " 



Revolutions of blower, 1,800. Pressure of blast, 8J ounces. Kind of 
^ux used, limestone. 



Amount of iron melted. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 6,200 



TOTALS. 

70,707 lbs. I Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 11^. 



Length of heat, 4h. 15m. 



Remarks. — In this heat the above amount was meltea, having a uniform 
temperature from first to last. The metal was poured into car-wheels. 



Oct. 23, 1883. 



EDWARD J. CAMPBELL, 

Superintendent Rochester Car- Wheel Works. 



842 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



JERSEY CITY, NJ. 

COMMON 45" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 551" 

Thickness of lining 5" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 45" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 47" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 45" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door . . , . , 11' 
Style of tuyeres: four 3" X 12" oblong tuyeres. 

Height from bottom jilate to bottom of tuyere 12" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 6" 



Fuel used for bed: coke . 500 lbs. 


Fifth charge of pig . . 


. 1,500 lbs 


First charge of pig . 


. 2,000 " 


" " scrap . 


. 500 " 


" " coke. 


. 300 " 


" " coke 


. 200 " 


Second charge of pig 


. 2,000 " 


Sixth charge of pig . . 


. 1,200 " 


" " coke 


. 300 " 


" " scrap . 


. 1,000 " 


Third charge of pig . 


. 2,000 " 


" " coke 


. 150 " 


" " coke 


. 250 " 


Seventh charge of pig . 


. 1,400 " 


Fourth charge of pig 


. 2,000 " 


*' " scrap 


. 1,200 " 


" " coke 


. 200 " 







No. 8 Sturtevant fan ; diameter main blast-pipe, 10". 



Time of starting fire . . 3.00 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 3.45 " 
Blast i>ut on 4.15 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 4.30 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.50 " 



Revolutions of blower, 1,800. Kind of fuel used, Connellsville coke. 



Amount of iron melted, 14,800 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,900 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 7-fu%- 



Fluidity of melted iron, XX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 35m. 



Remarks. — The class of work made is general machinery, piano-plates, 
and pulleys. The iron was hot enough to pour piano-plates and very light 
pulleys. I supposed it might be called very hot, but I did not care to 
exaggerate. 

DANIEL F. TREACY, 
Supt. Davenport & Tveacy Co.'s Workt. 
Dbo. 29, 1883. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



348 



MT. HOLLY, N.J. 

MACKENZIE 41" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 51" 

Thickness of liniug 5" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 28" 

Largest iuside or melting-point diameter 41" 

Inside diameter at cliarging-door 41" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 8' 

Style of tuyeres: fiat IJ" opening, continuous tuyeres. 



Height of tuyere above sa 
Fuel used for bed: coke 




. . 8' 


. 400 lbs. 


Fourth charge of coke . . 


90 lbs 


coal 


. 600 " 


Fifth charge of pig . . . 


800 " 


First charge of pig . . 


1,600 " 


" " scrap . . 


400 " 


" '" scrap . 


. 800 " 


" " coal . . . 


120 " 


" " coal . . 


. 120 " 


Sixth charge of pig . . . 


800 " 


Second charge of pig . 


. 800 " 


" " scrap . . 


400 " 


" " scrap. 


400 " 


" " coke . . 


90 " 


" " coke . 


. , 90 " 


Seventh charge of pig . . 


800 " 


Third charge of pig . . 


. 800 " 


" " scrap . 


400 " 


" " scrap . 


. 400 " 


" " coal . . 


120 " 


" " coal . 


. 120 " 


Eighth charge of pig . . 


800 " 


Fourth charge of pig . 


. 800 " 


" " scrap . . 


400 '♦ 


" " scrap . 


. 400 " 







Three charges more, continued per order shown. 

No. 7 Sturtevaut fan; diameter of main blast-pipe, 12". 
Time of starting fire . . 12.00 m. I First appearance of fluid 

" charging first iron, 3.00 p.m. iron 

Blast put on 3.30 " | Bottom dropped .... 

Revolutions of blower, 2,255. Pressure of blast, 16" column 
Kind of fuel used, Lehigh coal, Connellsville coke. 



4.00 P.M. 
5.30 " 
of water. 



Amount of iron melted. 



TOTALS. 

14,400 lbs. I Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 



Amount of fuel consumed, 2,050 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 7tSi5- 



Length of heat, 21i. 

Our iron is used for pouring 



Remarks. — The above is an average lieat 
turbine water-wheels and mill machinery. 

T. H. RISDON, President, 
LUCIUS L. AYERS, Foreman, 

Sisdon <& Co.'s Works Foundry 
Dec. 3, 1883. 



344 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



PHILADELPHIA, PENN. 

MACKENZIE 116" X 54" CUPOLA. 

Outside dimensions 133" X eei* 

Inside dimensions at tuyeres 110" X 42" 

Largest inside or melting-point dimensions 116" X 54" 

Inside dimensions at ehargiug-door 116" X 54' 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door . . 8' 2" 
Style of tuyeres: tlat 1" opening, continuous tuyere. 
Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere, 12" front and 8" back. 
Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 4* 



Fuel used for bed : coal 
First charge of iron . 
" " coal . 

Second charge of iron 
" " coal 

Third charge of iron 



a . 3,000 lbs. 


Third charge of coal 


. 1,200 lbs. 


. .14,000 " 


Fourth charge of iron 


.14,000 " 


. . 1,200 " 


" " coal 


. 1,300 " 


. .14,000 " 


Fifth charge of iron . 


.12,000 " 


. . 1,300 " 


" " coal . 


. 1,300 " 


. .14,000 " 


Sixth charge of iron . 


.12,000 " 



I. p. Morris Co.'s 30" X 24" blowing engine. 



Time of starting fire 
Blast put on . . . 



. 11.00 A.M. I First appearance of fluid 

. 1.00 P.M. I iron 1.20 P.M. 

Bottom dropped, 5.08 p.m. 



Stroke of blower, 70. Pressure of blast, 12 ounces. Kind of fuel used, 
Lehigh coal. 



Amount of iron melted, 80,000 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 9,300 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used. 1 to 8i^o- 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, 4h. 8m. 



Remarks. — The iron is used for heavy engine and machinery castings. 



Oct. 25, 1883. 



DAVID J. MATLACK, 
Foreman I. P. Morris & Co.'s Works Foundry 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



345 



ERIE, PENN. 

COMMON 32" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 40" 

Thickness of lining 5" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 31" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 35" 

Inside diameter at cliarging-door 30" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 9' 8" 

Style of tuyeres : flat, i" opening, continuous tuyere. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 15^" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side SJ" 



Fuel used for bed : coke . 


120 lbs. 


Second charge of coke . . 


80 lbs 


coal . 


300 " 


" " coal . 


70 " 


First charge of pig . . . 


900 " 


Third charge of pig . . 


900 " 


" " scrap . . 


600 " 


" " scrap . 


600 " 


" " coke . . . 


80 " 


" " coke . 


80 " 


" " coal . . . 


70 " 


" " coal . 


70 " 


Second charge of pig . . 


900 " 


Fourth charge of pig . 


. 900 " 


" " scrap. . 


GOO " 


" " scrap . 


. 600 " 



No. 4 Sturtevant fan ; diameter main blast-pipe, 7". 

Time of stai-ting fire . . 2.10 p.m. 1 First appearance of fluid 

" charging first iron, 3.10 " iron 4.06 p.m. 

Blast put on 4.00 " 1 Bottom dropped .... 5.05 " 

Revolutions of blower, 3,100. Kind of fuel used, Shamokin coal and 
Connellsville coke. Kind ol flux used. Kirk's flux. 



Amount of iron melted, 6,000 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 870 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to Grso- 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 5m. 



Remarks. — The above workings show average results. Our work ia 
chiefly engine-castings. 

DAVID SMITH, 
Foreman iSkinner & Wood's Works Foundry. 
Oct. 18, 1883. 



846 AMERICAN CUPOLA PllACTICE. 

PITTSBURGH, PENN. 

COMMON 54" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 72" 

Thickness of lining 9" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 54" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 56" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 54" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 12' 

Style of tuyeres : flat 1" opening, continuous tuyere. 

Heiglit from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 20" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 14" 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of slag-hole 1(3" 

Fuel used for bed : coke . 1,400 lbs. I Second charge of coke . . 200 lbs. 

First charge of iron . . . 4,500 " Third charge of iron . . 2,500 " 

coke. . . 200 " " " coke . . 200 " 

Second charge of iron . . 2,500 " | Fourth charge of iron . . 2,500 " 
Six charges more, continued per order shown. 

No. 8 Stnrtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 12". 

Time of starting fire . . 12.00 a.m. I First appearance of fluid 

" charging first iron 1.30 p.m. iron 3.00 p.m. 

Blast put on 2.50 " 1 Bottom dropped .... 4.50 " 

Revolutions of blower, 2,200. Pressure of blast, 9 to 11 ounces. Kind of 
fuel used, Connellsville coke. Kind of flux used, limestone or oyster-shells. 



TOTALS. 

Amount of iron melted, 27,000 lbs. I Fluidity of melted iron, XX. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 3,200 " Length of heat, 2 hours. 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 8^^. ( 

Remarks. — The class of work made is heavy steam and blast engines, 
and machinery. We have two 54" and one 36" cupola ; also oue air fur- 
nace. Our large cupolas can melt .35 tons without trouble. 

WM. H. CONNER, 
Foreman Mackintosh & Hemphill (Fort Pitt) Works Foundry. 
FsB. 2d; 1884. 



AMElllCAX CUPOLA rRACtlCE, 347 

BALTIMORE, MD. 
COLLIAU 54" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 72" 

Thickness of lining 9" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 54" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 54" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 54" 

Height from bottom-i)late up to bottom of charging-door 14' 

Style of tuyeres : two rows of tuyeres, six above and six below; lower 
row oblong, upper row round, lower 6" x 12", upper row 3" diam. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of lower tuyeres 26" 

" " " " to upper tuyeres 45" 

" " " " to bottom of slag-hole 20" 

Fuel used for bed : coke . 2,000 lbs. Fourth charge of coke . . 240 lbs. 

Fifth charge of 

pig and scrap, 4,000 " 
Fifth charge of coke . . 240 " 
Sixth charge of 

pig and scrap, 4,000 " 
Sixth charge of coke . . 240 " 
Seventh charge of 

pig and scrap, 4,000 " 
Seventh charge of coke . 240 " 
Eighth charge of 

pig and scrap, 4,000 " 
Five more charges, continued per order shown. 



First charge of 




pig and scrap, 


4,000 


First charge of coke . . 


240 


Second charge of 




pig and scrap, 


4,000 


Second charge of coke . . 


240 


Third charge of 




pig and scrap, 


4,000 


Third charge of coke . . 


240 


Fourth charge of 




pig and scrap. 


4,000 



No. 6 Baker blower; diameter main blast-pipe, 22 

Time of starting fire . .11.00 a.m 

" charging first iron, 12.00 " 
Blast put on 1..30 p.m 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 1.45 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 4.30 " 



Revolution of blower, 120. Pressure of blast, 9J ounces. 



Amount of iron melted, .52,000 lbs. I Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 10^^. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 4,880 " | Length of heat, 3 hours. 

Remarks. — We use 15 per cent wheel-scrap and 85 per cent charcoal 
pig metal. Our heats range from 50,000 up to 150,000 pounds. Our iron is 
good and hot. 

WILLIAM HYSAN, 

Foreman Baltimore Car Wheel Co.'s Foundry. 
Feb. 14, 1884. 



348 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



WILMINGTON, DEL. 
MACKENZIE 36" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 50" 

Thickness of lining 6" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 30" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 36" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 39" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door .... 10' 10" 
Style of tuyeres : flat 2" opening, continuous tuyere. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 12" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 6" 



Fuel used for bed : coal 


. 1,050 lbs. 


Third charge of iron 


. 3,000 lbs 


First charge of iron . . 


. 3,000 " 


" " coal . 


. 150 " 


" " coal . . 


. 150 " 


" " coke . 


75 " 


" " coke . . 


75 " 


Fourth charge of iron . 


. 3,000 " 


Second charge of iron . 


. 3,000 " 


" " coal . 


. 150 " 


" " coal . 


. 150 " 


" " coke . 


75 " 


" " coke . 


75 " 


Fifth charge of iron . . 


. 3,000 " 



Sturtevant fan ; diameter of main blast-pipe, 12". 



Time of starting fire . . 12.00 a.m. 
" charging first iron 2.00 p.m. 
Blast put on 3.00 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 3.07 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.15 " 



Revolutions of blower, 2,500. Pressure of blast, 8 to 12 ounces. Kind 
of flux used, oyster-shells. 

TOTALS. 

Amount of iron melted, 15,000 lbs. I Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 7-^. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,950 " ] Length of heat, 2h. 15m. 

Remarks. — The above is the working of our smallest cupola. Our 
castings are for marine and heavy machinery work. 



AYILLIAM STUART, 
Foreman Pusey & Jones Co.'s Works Foundry. 



Nov. 25, 1883. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



349 



CINCINNATI, O. 

COMMON 42" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 

Thickness of lining 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 

Inside diameter at cliarging-door 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 
Style of tuyeres : eight round tuyeres, four 2" and lour 5f". 
Height from bottom plate to bottom of large tuyere . . . 



60" 

9" 

34" 

42" 

42" 

8' 

16" 



Fuel used for bed : coke 


750 lbs. 


Fourth charge of coke . . 


100 lbs. 


First charge of pig . . 


1,100 " 


Fifth charge of pig . . . 


550 " 


" " scrap . 


900 " 


" " scrap . . 


450 " 


" " coke 


100 " 


" " coke. . . 


100 " 


Second charge of pig . 


550 " 


Sixth charge of pig . . . 


550 " 


" " scrap 


450 " 


" " scrap . . 


450 " 


" " coke . 


100 " 


" " coke . . 


100 " 


Third charge of pig . . 


550 " 


Seventh charge of pig . . 


550 " 


" " scrap . 


450 " 


" " scrap . 


450 " 


" " coke . 


100 " 


" " coke . 


100 " 


Fourth charge of pig . 


550 " 


Eighth charge of pig . . 


550 " 


'• " scrap 


450 " 


" " scrap . . 


450 " 



Eleven more charges, continued per order shown. 

No. 5 Root's blower; diameter main blast-pipe, 15" 



Time of starting fire . . 1.00 p.m. 

charging first iron 2.00 " 
Blast put on 3.30 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 3.35 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.25 •' 



Revolutions of blower, 150. Kind of fuel used, Connellsville coke. 



TOTALS. 

Amount of iron melted, 20,000 lbs. I Fluidity of melted iron, XX. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 2,550 " Length of heat, Ih. 55m. 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to Tni^r. | 

Remarks. — Our castings would be classed as light, the machine castings 
being principally for wood-working machinerj-, and more than half of our 
total output being of lighter character. "We frequently have iron hot 
enough for stove-plate. Our heats vary from 15,000 to 24,000. 

SAMUEL E. HILLES, 
Samuel C. Tatum & Co.'s Works- 

Nov. 23, 1883. 



350 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE, 



PORTSMOUTH, O. 
TAPER CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 72" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 37i'' 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 40" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 56" 

Height from bottom-plate up to bottom of charging-door 10' 

Style of tuyeres : six 3" X 4" oblong tuyeres. 

Height from bottom-plate to bottom of tuyere 29" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 20" 



Fuel used for bed: coke . 


. 500 


First charge of 




pig and scrap 


. 600 


First charge of coke . . 


. 30 


Second charge of 




pig and scrap 


. 600 


Second charge of coke . 


. 30 


Third charge of 




pig and scrap 


. 600 


Third charge of coke . . 


. 30 


Fourth charge of 




pig and scrap 


. 600 



Four more charges, continued per 



Fourth charge of coke . . 
Fifth charge of 

pig and scrap . 
Fifth charge of coke . . 
Sixth charge of 

pig and scrap . 
Sixth charge of coke . . 
Seventh charge of 

pig and scrap . 
Seventh charge of coke . 
Eighth charge of 

pig and scrap . 
order shown. 



30 lbs. 



600 
30 



600 
30 



600 
30 



600 



No. 4 Root's blower; diameter main blast-pipe, 12". 
First appearance of fluid 



Time of starting fire . . 2.00 p.m 

" charging first iron, 3.30 " 
Blast put on 4.00 " 



iron 4.10 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.05 " 



Revolutions of blower, 120. Pressure of blast, 10 ounces. Kind of fuel 
used, Connellsville coke. 



Amount of iron melted, 7,200 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 830 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 8^^^. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 5m. 



Remarks. — This cupola is old style, drawn in at the bottom to save 
fuel. We use very little scrap, as it is scarce. "We pour our iron into 
moulds for heavy machinery and rolling-mill castings. 

THOMAS L. WHITE, 

Foreman Portsmouth Foundry and Machine-Works Foundry 
Pec. 12, 1883. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



351 



AKRON, O. 
COMMON 38" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 50" 

Thickness of lining 7" 

Inside diameter at tujeres 38" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 38" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 36" 

Height from bottom plate np to bottom of charging-door 9' 

Style of tuyeres : seven 5" round tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 13" 

Height of tuvere above sand bottom on back side 9" 



Fuel used for bed ; coke 


700 lbs. 


Fifth charge of scrap . . 


540 lbs 


First charge of pig . . 


1,625 " 


" " coke . . . 


150 " 


" " scrap 


900 " 


Sixth charge of pig . . . 


750 " 


" " coke . . 


150 " 


" " scrap . . 


500 " 


Second charge of pig . 


915 " 


" " coke . . 


150 " 


" " scrap 


500 " 


Seventh charge of pig . . 


600 " 


" " coke . 


150 " 


" " scrap . 


.500 " 


Third charge of pig . . 


875 " 


" " coke . 


150 " 


" " scrap . 


.500 " 


Eighth charge of pig . . 


625 " 


" " coke 


150 " 


" " scrap . . 


540 " 


Fourth charge of pig "■. 


700 " 


" " coke . . 


150 " 


" " scrap 


540 " 


Ninth charge of pig . . . 


650 " 


" " coke . 


180 " 


" " scrap . . 


550 " 


Fifth charge of pig . . 


800 " 







No. 5 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 12". 

Time of starting fire . . 3.00 p.m. i First appearance of fluid 

" charging first iron, 3.45 " iron 4..30 p.m. 

Blast put on 4.15 " I Bottom dropped .... 6.00 " 

Revolutions of blower, 3,000. Pressure of blast, 13 ounces. Kind of 
flux used, limestone. 

TOTALS. 

Amount of iron melted, 12,610 lbs. I Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,930 " Length of heat, Ih. 45m. 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to Gf^o. I 

Remarks, — Our iron is used chiefly for making engines and heavy 
machinery-castings. 

ADAM FRANCE, 

Foreman Webster, Camp, & Lane Works Foundry 
Nov. 6, 1883. 



352 



AMERICAN CL'POLA PRACTICE. 



YOUNGSTOWN, O. 
COMMON 48" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 6(V 

Thickness of lining 6" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 44" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 48" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 48" 

Height from bottom plate np to bottom of charging-door 11' 

Style of tuyeres : six 4" round tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 21" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 16" 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of slag-hole 18" 

The blast-pipe is connected to a wind-belt 10"xl2"; the belt encircles 
the cupola, with the exception of about 24" in front at the spout. 



Fuel used for bed : coke 


1,500 lbs. 


Fifth charge of scrap 


. 2,200 lbs 


First charge of pig . . 


4,500 " 


" " coke . 


. 300 " 


" " scrap . 


500 " 


Sixth charge of pig . 


. 2,000 " 


" " coke . . 


300 " 


" " scrap 


. 2,000 " 


Second charge of pig . 


2,000 " 


" " coke 


. 200 " 


" " scrap 


2,200 " 


Seventh charge of pig 


. 2,000 " 


" " coke . 


300 " 


" " scrap . 2,000 " 


Third charge of pig . . 


2,000 " 


" " coke 


. 200 " 


" " , scrap . 


2,200 " 


Eighth charge of pig 


. 2,000 " 


" " coke . 


300 " 


" " scrap 


. 2,000 " 


Fourth charge of pig . 


2,000 " 


" " coke 


. 200 " 


" " scrap 


2,200 " 


Ninth charge of pig . 


. 2,000 " 


" " coke . 


300 " 


" " scrap 


. 2,000 " 


Fifth charge of pig . . 


2,000 " 







No. 7 Sturtevant fan; diameter of main blast-pipe, 12" 



Time of starting fire . . 12.00 a.m. 
" charging first iron, 2.00 p.m. 

Blast put on 3.30 " 

Revolutions of blower, 3,000. 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 3.45 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 6.50 " 
Kind of flux used, limestone. 



TOTALS. 

Amount of iron melted, 37,800 lbs. | Fluidity of melted iron, XX. 

Amount of fuel consumed, 3,600 " j Length of heat, 3b. 20ai. 

Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to lOi. I 

Remarks. — Our work is heavy machinery-castings. "When required, 

we have another cupola, 34" inside diameter, to help us out in very heavy 

heats. Tlie small cujmla is iHiilt upon abt)ut the same principle as the 

above, and both have always worked satisfactorily. 

WILLIAM NOLL, 

Foreman Hamilton's Woi-ka Foundry. 
Oct. 24, 188S. 



AMEK1CA^• CUPOLA PRACTICE. 353 

LANSING, MICH. 

COMMON 29" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 48" 

Thickness of lining 9^" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 29" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 29" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 29" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door .... 8' 6" 
Style of tuyeres : three 4" x 9" oblong tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 18" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 11" 

Three 6" branch-pipes carry the blast from the main pipe to the cupola's 
tuyeres. 



Fuel used for bed: coke 


168 lbs 


coal 


200 " 


First charge of iron . . 


2,000 " 


" " coke 


168 " 



Second charge of iron . . 1,000 lbs. 

" " coke . . 64 " 

Third charge of iron . . 1,000 " 



No. 4 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 8"; cupola 18' from blower. 



Time of starting fire . . 2.20 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 2.58 " 
Blasbputou 3.25 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 3.35 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 4.41 " 



Kevolutions of blower, 3,000. 



Amount of iron melted, 4,000 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 600 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 6^%%. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 16m. 



Remarks. — Our iron is used for engine, saw-mill, and jobbing castings 



Feb. 26, 1884. 



JAMES CROWNER, 

Foreman Jarvis, Barnes, & Co.'s Works Foundry 



354 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PKACTICE. 



INDIANAPOLIS, IND. 
COMMON m" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 53" 

Thickness of lining 8J" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 36" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 36" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 36" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 9' 3" 

Style of tuyeres : two 8" round tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 16" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 12" 

Two 8" branch pipes lead direct from the main pipe to the tuyeres. 



Fuel used for bed : coke 
First charge of pig . 
" " scrap 

" " coke 

Second charge of pig 
" " scrap 

" " coke 

Third charge of pig . 
" " scrap 

" " coke 

Fourth charge of pig 
" " scrap 

Thirteen more charges, 



1,050 lbs. 

700 " 

300 " 

125 " 

700 " 

300 " 

125 " 

700 " 

300 " 

125 " 

700 " 

300 " 



Fourth charge of coke 
Fifth charge of pig . 
" " scrap 

" " coke . 

Sixth charge of pig . 
" " scrap 

" " coke 

Seventh charge of pig 
" " scrap 

" " coke 

Eighth charge of pig . 
" " scrap 



125 lbs. 

700 " 

300 " 

125 " 

700 " 

300 " 

125 " 

700 " 

300 " 

125 " 

700 " 

300 •' 



continued per order shown. 



No. 8 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 14"; cupola 50' from blower. 

First appearance of fluid 



Time of starting tire . . 2.30 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 3.15 " 
Blast put on 4.00 " 



iron 4.05 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.30 '* 



Revolutions of blower, 2,600. Pressure of blast, strong. 



Amount of iron melted, 21,000 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 3,550 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 5iVo- 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 30m. 



Remakks. — The above was an average heat during the busy seasoa 
Our castings are for architectural work. 

CHRIS. BAKER, 
Foretnan Haugh, Ketcham, & Co. 's Works Foundry. 
April 12, 1884. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



356 



CHICAGO, ILL. 
MACKENZIE 06" x 42" CUPOLA. 
Outside dimensions 

Thickness of lining 

Inside diameter at tuyeres . . . ■ 

Largest inside or melting-point dimensions 

Inside dimensions at charging-door 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 
Style of tuyeres : fiat 1|" opening, continuous tuyere. 
Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuj^ere . . . . 
Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side . . . 



Fuel used for bed : coke 

coal 

First charge of pig . . 

" " scrap . 

" " coal . . 

" " coke . . 

Second charge of pig . 

" " scrap 

'* " coal . 

" " coke . 

Third charge of pig . . 

" " scrap . 

coal. . 

" " coke 



600 

400 

2,500 

2,500 

200 

200 

2,500 

2,500 

200 

200 

2,500 

2,500 

200 

200 



lbs. 



Fourth charge of pig . 

" " scrap 

" " coal . 

" " coke . 

Fifth charge of pig . . 

" " scrap . 

" " coal . . 

" " coke . . 

Sixth charge of pig . . 

" " scrap . 

" " coal. . 

" " coke 

Seventh charge of scrap 



78"x64'' 
6" 

60" X 36" 
66" X 42" 
66" X 42" 
9' 6" 

10" 
7" 

2,500 lbs. 

2,500 " 

200 " 

200 " 

2,500 " 

2,500 " 

200 " 

200 " 

2,500 " 

2,500 " 

200 " 

200 " 

7,000 " 



No. 6 Root's blower; diameter main blast-pipe, 14", 

Time of starting fire . . 1.00 p.m 

" charging first iron, 1.30 " 
Blast put on 3.30 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 3.45 P.M. 

Bottom dropped .... 6.00 " 



Revolutions of blower, 196. 

TOTALS. 



Amount of iron melted, 37,000 lbs. 
ATuimnt of fuel consumed, 3,400 " 
liatio of fuel to iron used, 1 to lOi^y. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XX. 
Length of heat, 2h. 30m. 



Remarks. — Tliere can be 20 or 22 tons melted in this cupola; but do not 

advise any more than 18 tons, as there is no economy in overcrowding a 

I'upola. The last charge of all scrap will make grate-bar, etc. Our general 

run of castings are steam and hydraulic engine fittings. 

JNO. B. ROCKAFELLOW, 

Superintendent Crane Brothers Manufacturing Co. 
Die. 3, 1883. 



356 



AMERICAN CUPOLA FRACTICE. 



CALESBURC, ILL. 

COMMON 30" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 40" 

Thickness of lining 5" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 30" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 31" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 30" 

Height, from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 9' 

Style of tuyeres : three 6" round tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 12" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 9" 

Three 6" branch pipes lead direct from main pipe to the cupola's tuyeres. 



Fuel used for bed : coal 
First charge of iron . 

" " coke . 

Second charge of iron 
" " coke 

Third charge of iron 

" " coke 

Fourth charge of iron 



il . tiOO lbs. 


Fourth charge of coke . 


100 lbs 


. . 1,500 " 


Fifth charge of iron . . 


500 " 


. . 200 " 


" " coke 


100 " 


. . 1,000 " 


Sixth charge of iron . . 


500 " 


. . 100 " 


" " coke 


100 " 


. . 500 " 


Seventh charge of iron 


500 " 


. . 100 " 


" " coke 


100 " 


. . 500 " 


Eighth charge of iron . 


2,000 " 



No. 5 Sturtevant fan; diameter of main blast-pipe, 8"; length, 25'. 



Time of starting fire . . 1.30 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 2.45 " 
Blast put on 3.25 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 3.30 P.M. 

Bottom dropped .... 4.30 " 



Revolutions of blower, 
flux used, limestone. 



2,500. Pressure of blast, 10 ounces. Kind of 



Amount of iron melted, 7,000 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,400 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 5. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 5m. 



Remarks. — Our work is very light, and hence we require very hot iron, 
Our castings are for agricultural purposes. 

DAVID SPENCE, 
Foreman G. W. Brown & Co.'s Works Foundry 
April 3, 1S84. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



3o 



BELOIT, WIS. 
COMMON 40" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 55" 

Thickness of lining 7^" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres ... 40" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter , 40" 

Inside diameter at charging-door . . 40" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door ... .8' 
Style of tuyeres : four 7" round tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 12" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 8" 



Fuel used for lied : coke 


300 lbs. 


Fourth charge of coke . 


. 120 lb8 


coal 


300 " 


Fifth charge of iron . . 


. 1,200 " 


First charge of iron . . 


2.400 " 


" " coke 


. 120 " 


" " coke . . 


120 " 


Sixth charge of iron . . 


. 1,200 " 


Second charge of iron . 


1,200 " 


" " coke . 


. 120 <' 


" " coke . 


120 " 


Seventh charge of iron . 


. 1,200 '♦ 


Third charge of iron 


1,200 " 


" " coke 


. 120 " 


" " coke . 


120 " 


Eighth charge of iron . 


. 1,200 " 


Fourth charge of iron . 


1,200 " 







No. 7 Sturtevant fan ; diameter main blast-pipe, 12". 



Time of starting fire . . 1.30 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 3.00 " 
Blast put on 4.00 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 4.10 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.40 " 



Revolutions of blower, 2,400. Kind of flux used, fluor spar. 



Amount of iron melted, 10,800 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,440 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 7t^. 



Fhiidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 40m. 



Remarks. — The class of work made is paper machinery and jobbing 
castings. The blast-pipe connects to a wind-belt 6" X 12", which encircles 
three-quarters of the cupola's circumferences. 



J. E. PARKER, 
Foreman Merrill & Houstm Works Foundry 



Oct. 25, 1883. 



368 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. 

COMMON 35" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 43" 

Thickness of lining 4" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 35" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 35" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 35" 

Height from bottom plate np to bottom of charging-door 7' 4" 

Style of tuyeres : four tuyeres, 3" diameter at inside of lining, and 6" 

diameter at shell. 
Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere .... 
Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side ... 
Height from bottom plate to bottom of slag-hole .... 



P^iel used for bed: coke 


450 lbs 


First charge of pig . . 


1,200 " 


" scrap . 


1,200 " 


" " coke. . 


50 " 


Second charge of pig . 


300 " 


" " scrap . 


300 " 


' " coke . 


50 " 


Third charge of pig . . 


300 " 


" " scrap . 


300 " 


" " coke . 


50 " 


Fourth charge of pig 


300 " 


" " scrap . 


300 " 


" " coke . 


50 " 



. 16" 
12" 

. 9" 
300 lbs. 
300 •' 



Fifth charge of pig . 
" " scrap 

" " coke . . 50 " 
Sixth charge of pig . . . 300 •' 

" " scrap . . 300 " 

coke . . 50 " 

Seventh charge of pig . . 300 " 

scrap . 300 " 

" coke . 50 " 

Eighth charge of pig . . 300 " 

scrap. . 300 " 

coke . . 50 «• 

Ninth charge of scrap . . 1,400 " 
No. 5 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 9". 
Time of starting fire . . . 3.10 p.m. | First appearance of fluid 

" charging first iron, 4.15 " iron 4.47 p.m. 

Blast put on 4.40 " | Bottom dropped .... 5.40 " 

Revolution of blower, 2,800. Kind of flux used, fluor spar. After the 
first charge, then 7 pounds to every charge was used. 

TOTALS. 

Amount of iron melted, 8,000 lbs. I Fluidity of melted iron, XX. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 850 " i Length of heat, 1 hour. 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 9-i%. | 

Remarks. — We have made quicker time than the above, but that 
shown is an average. What scrap we use, aside from our gates, etc., is of 
the best quality. The last charge of 1,400 lbs. is mostly all scrap for sash- 
weights. Our general work is mill-machinery aud steam-engines. 

P. L. SIMPSON, 

Foreman North Star Iron Works Foundry 
Oct. 31, 1883. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



369 



BURLINGTON, IOWA. 

COMMON 25" CUPOLA. 

Oiatside diameter 40" 

Thickness of lining 8" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 25" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 26" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 24" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 10' 

Style of tuyeres : two 5" round tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 12" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 6" 



Fuel used for bed : coke . 400 lbs. 

First charge of pig . . . 300 " 

" scrap . . 300 " 

" coke. . . 100 " 



Second charge of pig . . 300 lbs. 

" " scrap . 600 " 

coke . . 100 " 

Third charge of scrap . . 800 " 



No. 5 Sturtevant fan; diameter of main blast-pipe, 10"; length, 31'. 



Time of starting fire . . 2.30 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 4.00 " 
Blast put on 4.30 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 4.45 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 6,45 " 



Revolutions of blower, 1,400. Kind of fuel used, Connellsville coke. 



Amount of iron melted, 2,300 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 600 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 3^,. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 15m. 



Remarks. — The class of work made is small castings and general 
machinery. Most of our work requires metal at white heat. The blast 
was not put on as strong as it could have been had we been able to take 
care of the iron. The heat being small does not, of course, show the 
economy it would were the heat a larger one. 



May 19, 1884. 



W. L. SCHUCK, 
Foreman Heimlen & Schuck Woi'ks Foundry 



360 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



GRINNELL, IOWA. 
COMMON S4" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 48" 

Tliickness of lining 7" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 34" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 34" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 34" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 9' 

Style of tuyeres : eight 2" x 6" flat tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 14" 

Two branch-pipes 7" diameter carry the blast from main pipe to the 
wind-belt. 



300 lbs. 
200 " 



Fovirth charge of pig . 

" " scrap 

" " coke 

Fifth charge of pig . 

" " scrap 

" " coke 

Sixth charge of i^ig . 

" " scrap 

" " coke 

Seventh charge of pig 

" " gates 

diameter main blast-pipe, 10"; length, 27'. 
3.25 P.M. First appearance of fluid 

iron 4.37 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.16 " 



700 
300 

60 
650 
300 

55 
650 
300 

55 



4.00 
4.30 



650 lbs. 

300 " 

55 " 

650 " 

300 " 

55 " 

700 " 

250 " 

55 '• 

300 " 

600 " 



Fuel used for bed: coke . 

coal . 

First charge of pig . . . 

" " scrap . . 

" " coke. . . 
Second charge of pig . . 

" " scrap . . 

" " coke . . 

Third charge of pig . . . 

" " scrap . . 

" " coke . . 
No. 5 Sturtevant fan ; 
Time of starting fire . . 
" charging first iron, 
Blast put on 

Revolutions of blower, 3, 
ville coke. 

TOTALS. 

Amount of iron melted, 6,650 lbs. I Ratio of fuel to iron used, Tto T-,*,^. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 835 " I Length of heat, 46 m. 

Remarks. — I am running a cupola that we put up six months ago. The most fuel 1 
^ever used was 1 to 7, and I am now melting with 1 to 8. I believe in using all the fuel 
required to melt good iron, but I do not believe In wasting it. 

The first fifteen hundred pounds of iron is run into mower wheels. These wheels 
have wrought iron spokes in them, and the rims have to be poured first, to give them a 
chance to shrink before the hub is poured. We have a light seat, and also a light gear 
cover, and several other pieces that take hot iron, and we have no trouble in running them. 

The tuyeres in ray cupola are 14" from base. I have used them as low as 12", but for 
coke I prefer to have them higher. 

In some foundries they use fire-clay, weakened with sand. I use common clay mixed 
with the burned sand that comes from the castings. It is hard to mix, but makes a good 
lining. The sand prevents the clay from cracking, and it stands fire equal to fire-clay. 

JACOB OTT, 

Foreman Craver, Steele, & Austin's Agricultural Works Foundry 
Junk 3, 1884. 



200. Kind of fuel used, Lehigh and Connells- 



AMERICAN CUPOLA rUACTICE. 



361 



OMAHA, NEB. 
CAR-WHEEL DEPARTMENT: COMMON 50" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 62y 

Thickness of lining 6" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 50" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 52" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 50" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door .... 10' 2" 
This cupola has six 3^" x 82" oblong tuyeres. Height from bottom plate 
to bottom of tuyeres, 15|". The hottest melting-point is about 18" above 
the top of the tuyeres. "Main blast-pipe to branches is 206' long. There 
are two branch-pipes, 16" diameter, 18' long. 

MACHINERY DEPARTMENT: COMMON 50" CUPOLA. 

The cupola in this department is the same size as the cupola in the 
wheel department, with the exception of the tuyeres. This cupola has 
three rows of tuyeres, all of which are 4" in diameter; there are six in each 
row. The respective distance of each row from the bottom plate is 15", 
24", and M". The two upper rows of tuyeres are at an angle of 40°, so as to 
throw the blast downwards. The hottest melting-point is about 14" above 
the top row. The lining between the two lower rows is also burned out a 
little from the effects of the blast. 

From the fan to the branch-pipes, the main pipe is (58'. The length of 
the two 18" branch-pipes leading to the cupola is 22'. The diameter of main 
pipe is 24". It has a No. 8 double Sturtevant blower, making 1,700 revolu- 
tions. The wind-belt surrounding the (nipola is HO" deep by 9^" wide. 



Car-Wheel Cupola. 



lbs. 



Fuel used for bed : coke 1,200 

First charge of pig 2,000 

" " wheel-scrap .... 2,480 

" " coke 21.5 

Second charge of pig 1,000 

" " wheel-scrap . . . 1,240 

(< ti coke . . 215 

Third charge of pig 1,000 

" " wheel-scrap . . . 1,240 
Fourteen more charges, continued in the 

order shown. 

TIME. 

Time of starting Are .... 11.00 a.m. 

" charging first iron . . 11.55 " 

r.last put on 12.15 p.m. 

First appearance of fluid Iron . 12.22 " 

Bottom dropped 2.50 " 

TOTALS. 

Amount of iron melted . . . 40,320 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed . . 4,640 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 8.09. 
Length of heat, 2h. .35m. 



Machinery Cupola. 



lbs. 



Fuel used for bed : coke 1,200 

First charge of scrap 5,000 

coke 210 

Second charge of scrap 2,000 

coke 210 

Third charge of scrap 2,000 

coke 210 

Fourth charge of scrap 2,000 

Fifteen more charges, continued in the 
order shown. 

TIME. 

Time of starting fire .... 2.00 p.m. 

" charging first iron . . 3.00 " 

Blast put on 3.20 " 

First appearance of fluid iron . 3.27 " 

Bottom dropped 5.40 " 

TOTALS. 

Amount of iron melted . . . -11,000 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed . . 4,980 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to i^.-X). 
Length of heat, 2h. 20m. 

Remarks. — We h.ave melted as high as 1 to 9', (with Connellsville coke for fuel) in 
tlie wheel furnace. Our iron is when melted very hot and fluid. I find very little differ- 
ence in the two cupolas, with the heats we are running, except the machinery cupola 
melts the fastest at the end of heat. Were the two cupolas run above the general c.ipa- 
city of such sized furnaces, then the cupola with the three rows of tuyeres would pro- 
duce the hottest iron, and perform the fastest melting, if they were both charged exactly 
alike. 

EDWARD RICHELIEF. 
Foreman Union Pacijic Railway Fotmdry. 
April 4, 1884. 



362 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



DENVER, COL. 

COMMON 32" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter , . 48" 

Thickness of lining 8" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 32" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 36" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 32" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door . . . . . 8' 9" 
Style of tuyeres : six 3|" round tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere , . . . 24" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 18" 



Fuel used for bed : coke 
First charge of pig . 
" " scrap 

" " coke. 

Second charge of pig 
" " scrap 

" " coke 

Third charge of pig . 
" " scrap 

" " coke 

Fourth charge of pig 
" " scrap 



600 lbs. 

800 " 

500 " 

80 " 

700 " 

500 " 

90 " 

400 " 

600 " 

100 " 

400 " 

600 " 



Fourth charge of coke . . 100 lbs. 

Fifth charge of pig ... 400 " 

scrap . . 600 " 

coke . . 100 " 

Sixth charge of pig . . . 400 " 

" scrap . . 600 " 

coke . . 100 " 

Seventh charge of pig . . 400 " 

" scrap . 600 " 

coke . 100 " 

Eighth charge of pig . . 250 " 

scrap . 750 " 



Four more charges, same as last charge shown. 

No. 6 Stiirtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 10" 
Time of starting tire . . 1.00 p.m. First appearance of fluid 

" charging lii-st iron, 3.00 
Blast put on 3.45 



iron 4.00 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 6.10 " 



Pressure of blast, 7^ ounces. Kind of fuel used, Connells\alle coke. 



Amount of iron melted, 12,500 lbs. Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,670 " Length of heat, 2h. 25m. 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 7 ]^^. 

Remarks. — We used in this heat 4,000 pounds old car- wheel; the bal- 
ance of scrap was ordinary railroad castings. We have melted in same 
cupola 15,000 pounds in three hours, with about same conditions. Our 
general castings are for mining machinerj'. 

F. M. DAVIS, Proprietor, 
A. CORDINGLY, Foreman, 

Denver Foundry and Machine Co 
Sbpt. 20, 1884. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



363 



FORT SCOTT, KAN. 

COMMON 36" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 52" 

Thickness of lining 8" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 37" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 37" 

Inside diameter at chargiug-door 36" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door ..... 9' 
Style of tuyeres : four 3|" X 4^" oval tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 19" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 9" 



Fuel used for bed : coke 


425 lbs. 


Third charge of pig . 


. . 400 lbs 


First charge of pig . . 


700 " 


" " scrap 


. . 1,700 " 


" " scrap . 


100 " 


" " coke 


. 150 " 


" " coke . . 


200 " 


Fourth charge of pig 


. 400 " 


Second charge of pig . 


200 " 


" " scrap 


. 1,700 " 


" " scrap. 


1,100 " 


" " coke 


. 100 " 


" " coke . 


150 " 


Fifth charge of pig . 


. 100 " 



No. 4 Sturtevant fan; diameter main blast-pipe, 14", 60' long, having 
three round curved elbows. 



Time of starting fire . . . 4.30 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 5.35 " 
Blast put on 6.05 ' ' 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 6.16 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 7.16 " 



TOTALS. 

Amount of iron melted, 6,400 lbs. 1 Fluidity of iron melted, XXX. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,025 " Length of heat, lb. 11m. 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 6-^). | 



Remarks. — The above is the working of an ordinary heat. The last 
cliarge of scrap was omitted ; as, after the jiig was in, we found we had 
enough charged necessary to pour all of¥. Had there been more wanted,- 
800 pounds more iron could have been melted without the adding of mor^ 
fuel. Our castings are for engines, mining and mill machinery. 



Oct. 19, 1883. 



F. J. NUTZ, Superintendent, 
NELSON ANDERSON, Foreman, 

Fort Scott Foundry and Machine Workt^ 



mi 



AMERICAN CUPOLA TRACTICE. 



ST. LOUIS, MO. 
COMMON 54" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 64" 

Thickness of lining . 6" 

Inside diameter at tnyeres . 54" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter . . • . 54" 

Inside diameter at charging-door , 54" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 12' 

Style of tuyeres : eight flat 1^" X 10" tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 22" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 13" 



Height from bottom plate 


to bottom of slag-hole 


. . 18" 


Fuel used for bed : coke . 


1,500 lbs 


Fourth charge of coke . . 


200 lbs. 


First charge of 




Fifth charge of 




pig and scrap 


7,000 " 


pig and scrap . 


3,000 " 


" " coke . . , . 


200 " 


" " coke . . . . 


200 " 


Second charge of 




Sixth cliarge of 




pig and scrap . 


3,000 " 


pig and scrap . 


3,000 " 


" " coke , . . . 


200 " 


" " coke . . . . 


200 " 


Third charge of 




Seventh charge of 




pig and scrap . 


3,000 " 


pig and scrap 


3,000 " 


" " coke . . . 


200 " 


" " coke .... 


200 '• 


Fourth charge of 




Eighth charge of 




pig and scrap . 


3,000 " 


pig and scrap . 


3,000 " 



Five more charges, continued per order shown. 

No. 5^ Baker blower; diameter main blast-pipe, 18'' 



Time of starting fire . . 11.00 a.m. 
" charging first iron, l.OO p.m. 
Blast put on 2.00 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 2.15 P.M. 

Bottom dropped .... 4.30 " 



Revolutions of blower, 130. Pressure of blast, 10 ounces. Kind of fuel 
used, Connellsville coke. Kind of flux used, limestone. 



Amount of iron melted, 43,000 lbs. Fluidity of melted iron, XX. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 3,900 " Length of heat, 2h. 30m. 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 11 rBn- 

Remarks. — Our charges are, as a general thing, mixed two-thirds pig to 
one-third scrap. Have melted a 54,000 pounds heat with the charges the 
same as above, thereby making the ratio 1 to 12. Our castings are for all 
kinds of machinery. 

WILLIAM G. LOCKHART. 
Foreman Fulton Iron Works Foimdi'y 
Oct. 18, 1881. 



AMERICAN (ITOLA PRACTICE. 



36o 



ASHLAND, KY. 

COMMON 30" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 44" 

Thickness of lining > 7" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres • 30" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter .....,..•.• 30" 

Inside diameter at chargiug-door 24" 

Height from bottom jilate up to bottom of charging-door 10' 

Style of tuyeres • two 5" round tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 18" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 12" 



Fuel used for bed : coke 


300 lbs. 


Fourth charge of scrap 


. 200 lbs 


First charge of pig . . 


100 " 


" " coke 


30 " 


" " scrap . 


200 " 


Fifth charge of pig . 


. 100 " 


" " coke. . 


40 " 


" " scrap 


. 200 " 


Second charge of pig . 


100 " 


" " coke. 


30 " 


" " scrap 


200 " 


Sixth charge of pig . 


. 100 " 


" " coke . 


40 " 


" " scrap 


. 200 " 


Third charge of pig . . 


100 " 


" " coke 


30 " 


" " scrap . 


200 " 


Seventh charge of pig 


. 100 " 


" " coke . 


30 " 


" " sera] 


) . 200 « 


Fourth charge of pig . 


100 " 







No. 4 Sturtevant fan. 



Time of starting fire . . 1.30 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 2.30 " 
Blast put on 3 00 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 3.1S P.IL 

Bottom dropped .... 4.00 ** 



Eevolutions of blower, 3,200. 



Amount.of iron melted, 2,100 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 500 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 4Vl). 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 



Remarks — Railroad and mine castings is the general run of work 
made. 

WILLIAM LEWIS, 

Foreman Ashland Coal and Iron Railway Works Foundry 
Nov. 15, 1883. 



366 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



RICHMOND, VA. 
COLLIAU 40" GUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 64" 

Thickness of lining 7" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 40" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 40" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 40" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door .... 12' 6" 
Ptyle of tuyeres : two rows of tuyeres, six above and six below ; bottom 

row 4" X 8", top row 1^" diameter. 

Ileight from bottom plate to bottom of lower tuyere, 22"; to top . . . 38" 

Height of lower tuyere above sand bottom on back side 18" 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of slag-hole 14" 



Fuel used for bed: coke . 800 lbs. 

First charge of pig . . . 2,500 " 

•' scrap ■ . 1,500 " 

" " coke. . . 170 " 

Second charge of pig . . 1,000 " 

" " scrap • 1,500 " 

" coke . . 170 " 

Third charge of pig . . . 1,500 " 



Third charge of scrap 
" " coke 

Fourth charge of pig 
" " scrap 

" " coke 

Fifth charge of pig . 
" " scrap 



1,000 lbs. 

170 " 

500 " 

2,000 " 

170 " 

500 " 

3,000 " 



No- 5| Baker blower; diameter main blast-pipe, 12", 



Time of starting fire . . 12.00 a.m. 
" charging first iron, 2.00 p.m. 
Blast put on 3.15 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 3.35 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 4.45 " 



Revolution of blower, 96 to 100. Pressure of blast, 7 ounces. Kind 
(if fuel used, West Virginia coke. Kind of flux used, scraps of marble, 
40 pounds to each charge. 



TOTALS 



Fluidity of iron melted, XX. 
Length of heat, lli. .30m. 



Amount of iron melted, 15,000 lbs 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,480 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to lOnfo- 

Remarks. —Our last iron is liotter than the first. The coke used was 
rather soft and uiashy. The castings made are for eugiutss and ."^aw-milis. 

L. FOX, 

Foreman Tanner and Delaney Engine Co.'s Works Foundry 
Xov. 3, 1883. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 367 

SALEM, N.C. 

COMMON 26" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 42" 

Thickness of lining 8" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 26" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 26" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 22" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 7' 6" 

Style of tuyeres : flat, 2" opening, continuous tuyere. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 12^" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 4" 



Fuel used for bed : coal . . 400 lbs. 
First charge of iron .... 500 " 
" " coal ... . 50 " 

Second charge of iron . . . 500 " 



Second charge of coal ... 50 lbs. 

Third charge of iron . . .500 " 

" " coal . . . 50 " 

Fourth charge of iron . . . 500 " 



Ten more charges, continued per order shown. 

No. 4 Sturtevant fan; diameter main bla.st-pipe, 8". Fan within 8' of 
cupola. 



Time of starting fire . . 1.00 p.m. 

'■ charging first iron, 2.00 " 
Blast put on 2.15 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 2.20 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 3.50 " 



Revolutions of blower, 3,000. Kind of fuel used, Lehigh anthracite (egg) 



Amount of iron melted, 7,000 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,050 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 6 Ami. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length cf heat, Ih. 35m. 



Remarks. — We use Low Moor and Lougdale, Va., iron. The Low 
Moor is very refractory to melt. Our work is saw-mill and general 
machinery castings. 

E. BABINGTON, 
Foreman Salem Iron Works Foundry 
Oct. 12, 1888. 



368 



AMERICAN CUrOLA PRACTICE. 



NASHVILLE, TENN. 
COMMON 56" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 72" 

Thickness of lining 8" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 56" 

Diameter 12" above the centre of the tuyeres 50" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 56" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 56" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging door 13' 

Style of tuyeres : twelve 4" round tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 12" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 8" 

The tuyeres take their blast from a wind-belt 12" X 20" with which two 
13" branch-pipes connect. 

. 1,300 lbs. i Fourth charge of coke , . 252 lbs. 
. 2,000 " 



Fuel used for bed : coke 

First charge of pig . 
" " scrap 

" " coke . 

Second charge of pig 
" " scrap 

" " coke 

Third charge of pig . 
" " scrap 

" " coke 

Fourth charge of pig 
" " scrap 



1,000 
252 

1,300 
700 
252 

1,400 
800 
252 

1,400 
800 



Fourth charge of coke 

Fifth charge of pig . 
" " scrap 

" " coke 

Sixth charge of pig . 
" " scrap 

" " coke 

Seventh charge of pig 
" " scrap 

" " coke 

Eighth charge of pig 
" " scrap. 



252 

1,400 
800 
252 

1,400 
800 
252 

1,400 
800 
252 

1,400 
800 



Eight more charges, continued per order shown. 

No. 5 Root's blower; diameter main blast-pipe, 18". 



Time of starting fire . . 12.00 a.m. 
" charging first iron, 1.30 p.m. 
Blast put on 3.00 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 3.09 

Bottom dropped .... 5.30 



Revolutions of blower, 150. Kind of fuel used, Alabama coke. 



Amount of iron melted, 35,800 lbs. Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 5,080 " Length of heat, 2h. 30m. 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to Tjf o- 

Remarks. — The blower does not run as fast as it should to do its best 
work. We melt from 7k to 8 tons per hour. There is about two thousand 
pounds of metal left in the cupola when the blast is stopped, which stands 
fifteen to twenty minutes until it can be poured. It has to be poured into 
moulds that require dull iron, and is handled by few men; hence the delay. 
The castings we make are stoves, mantels, and hollow-ware, therefore our 
iron must be very hot. 

CHARLES PRESTON, 
Foreman Phillips A BuUorff' Stove Works Foundry. 
Feb. 27, 1884. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



369 



CHATTANOOGA, TENN. 

COMMON 28" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 40" 

Thickness of lining 6" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 28" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 28" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 20" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 7' 6" 

Style of tuyeres : two oi" X 1" oval tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuj'ere 15" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom pn back side 12" 

Two 6" branch pipes carry the blast from main pipe to the cupola tuyeres. 



Fuel used for bed : coke 
First charge of pig . 
" " scrap 

" " coke . 

Second charge of pig 
" " scrap 

" " coke 

Third charge of pig . 
" " scrap 

" " coke 

Fourth charge of pig 
" " scrap 



400 lbs. 

600 " 

200 " 

50 " 

600 " 

200 " 

50 " 

600 " 

200 " 

50 " 

600 " 

200 " 



Fourth charge of coke 
Fifth charge of pig . 
" " scrap 

" " coke 

Sixth charge of pig . 
" " scrap 

" " coke 

Seventh charge of pig 
" " scrap 

" " coke 

Eighth charge of pig 
" " scrap. 



50 lbs. 

600 " 

200 " 

50 " 

600 " 

200 " 

150 " 

600 " 

200 " 

150 " 

600 " 

200 " 



No. 1 Root blower; diameter main blast-pipe, 8". 



Time of starting fire . . 2.00 p.m. 
" charging first iron, 2.45 " 

Blast put on 4.00 " 

Revolutions of blower, 600. 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 4.05 p.if. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.40 " 
Kind of flux used, limestone. 



Amount of iron melted, 6,400 lbs. Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 950 " Length of heat, Ih. 40m. 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 63^. 

Remarks. — The blower is too small for our work, and has to run too 
fast. AVhen our heats are heavier than 4,800 pounds, we make the sixth 
charge of fuel 150 pounds instead of 50. We find that we cannot make good 
fluid iron with certainty every heat with much less coke than 1 to 7|. We 
luive melted as high as 1 to 9, and quite frequently melt 6,000 pounds by 
having 400 pounds coke on bed and 50 pounds for all the charges; but we 
prefer to use a little more coke, as it makes more certainty of obtaining 
economy in the end. Our iron is used for making engines, turbine-wheela, 
and mill-castings. 

G. W. WHEELAND, Proprietor, 
W. S. BURGER, Foreman, 

^tna Foundry and Machine Works- 
March 18, 1884. 



870 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



MONTGOMERY, ALA. 

COMMON 28" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter t . 38" 

Thickness of lining 5" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 28" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 30" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 28" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 10' 

Style of tuyeres : eight 5" X 2" tiat tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 15" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 11" 



Fuel used for bed : coke 


350 lbs. 


Third charge of coke . 


75 lbs 


First charge of pig . . 


400 " 


Foiuth charge of pig . 


. 200 " 


" " scrap . 


300 " 


" '* scrap. 


. 500 " 


coke. . 


75 " 


" " coke . 


75 " 


Second charge of pig . 


400 " 


Fifth charge of pig . . 


. 200 " 


" " scrap 


300 " 


" " scrap . 


. 500 " 


" " coke . 


75 " 


" " coke 


75 " 


Third charge of pig . . 


200 " 


Sixth charge of pig . . 


. 200 " 


" " scrap . 


500 " 


" " scrap . 


. 500 " 



No. 3 Root blower; diameter main blast-pipe, 12* 



Time of starting fire . . 2.30 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 4.00 " 
Blast put on 4.30 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 4.45 P.M. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.30 " 



TOTALS. 

Amount of iron melted, 4,200 lbs. ] Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 725 " Length of heat, Ih. 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to Sfj^. | 

Remarks. — The above is not as good a showing as we can make. I 
take it as au average of heats run last spring, of which we kept a record of 
fifteen heats. Our iron is used for general jobbing castings. 



Nov. 0, 1883. 



R. I. MEALOR, 
Foreman Montgomery Iron Co.'s Works Foundry 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



COLUMBUS, CA. 

COMMON 30" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 42" 

Thickness of lining 6" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 30" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 30" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 30" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door ..... 8' 
Style of tuyeres : flat \" opening, continuous tuyere. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 11" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 7" 

Connected with the \" opening tuyere is an air-chamber, 8" X 2i", inside 
the cupola shell. The blast is carried to this by means of one branch pipe, 
4" X 8" where it connects with the chamber, and 8" X 10" where it joins 
the main blast-pipe. 



Fuel used for bed : coke 


175 lbs. 


Fifth charge: scrap . . 


300 lbs. 


coal 


400 " 


" " coke . . 


75 " 


First cliarge: pig . . . 


1,800 " 


Sixth charge: pig . . 


300 " 


" " coke . . 


75 " 


" " scrap . . 


300 " 


Second charge: pig . . 


300 " 


" '* coke . . 


70 " 


" " scrap . 


300 " 


Seventh charge: pig 


.300 " 


" " coke . 


75 " 


" " scrap . 


300 " 


Third charge: pig . . 


300 " 


" " coke . 


60 " 


" " scrap. . 


300 " 


Eighth charge : pig . . 


300 " 


" " coke . . 


75 " 


" " scrap . 


300 " 


Fourth charge : pig . . 


300 " 


" " coke . 


60 " 


" " scrap . 


300 " 


Ninth charge: pig . . 


300 " 


" " coke . 


100 " 


" " scrap. . 


300 " 


Fifth cliarge : pig . . . 


300 " 







Six more charges, continued per order shown in last two charges. 

48" shell, four-blade, home-made blower, main blast-pipe 12" X 12". 

First appearance of fluid 

iron 3.59 p.m.- 

Bottom dropped .... 5.51 " 

Be volutions of blower, 1,600. 



Time of starting fire . . 1.30 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 3.45 " 
Blast put on 3.50 '• 



TOTALS. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, 2h. Im. 



Amount of iron melted, 10,200 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,525 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to Q-f^. i 

Remarks. — One piece for an ammonia ice machine in this heat weighed 5,800 poundi,, 
and had to be poured with clean, hot iron, in order to stand a test of 275 pounds press- 
ure. We cast every day, but never use our large cupola, 60" x 36", unless we have 
sonio one piece that takes over 7,000 pounds of metal to pour it. Our chief work i« 
engines, saw-mill and cotton-machinery castings. 

ROBT. E. MASTERS, 

Foreman Columbus Iron Works Foundry, 
April 15, 188*. 



372 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



PALATKA, FLA. 
COMMON 22" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter , . 36" 

Thickness of lining 7" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 22" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 22" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 22" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 9' 6" 

Style of tuj'eres : three 3^" round tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 19" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 15" 

Three 4" branch-pipes carry the blast from the main pipe to the cupola's 
tuyeres. Two of the branch-pipes are 8' long and one 2' long. 



Fuel used for bed : coal . 600 lbs. 


Third charge of scrap . 


800 lbs 


First charge of pig . 


. 100 " 


" " coal 


100 " 


" " scrap 


, 800 " 


Fourth charge of pig . 


100 " 


" " coal . 


. 100 " 


" " scrap 


800 " 


Second charge of pig 


. 100 " 


" " coal . 


100 " 


" " scrap 


. 800 " 


Fifth charge of pig . . 


100 " 


" " coal 


. 100 " 


" " scrap . 


800 " 


Third charge of pig . 


. 100 " 







No. 5 Sturtevant fan; diameter of main blast-pipe, 8"; length 160'. 



Time of starting fire . . 9.00 a.m. 

" charging first iron, 11.00 " 
Blast put on 1.00 p.m. 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 1.15 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 3.30 " 



Revolutions of blower, 2,500. Kind of flux used, oyster-shells. 



Amount of iron melted, 4,500 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,000 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 4|. 



Fluidity of iron melted, XXX. 
Length of heat, 2h. 30m. 



Remarks. — Our foundry is new, having run only fourteen heats up u 
date. We use No. 1 Glengarnock Scotch pig. 



D. J. JUSTICE, 
General Foreman Florida Southern B,R. Works. 



April 22, 1884. 



AMERlCAxN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



375 



MARYSVILLE, CAL. 
COMMON ?,2" CUPOLA, 

Owtside diameter 43" 

Thickness of lining 5^'' 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 32' 

Largest inside or melting-jioint diameter 32" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 32" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of cliarging-door 10' 

.Style of tuyeres : four 5" round tuyeres made tapering at the point. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere 15" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side 7" 



Fuel used for bed : coke 


100 lbs. 


Second charge of coke . 


. 300 lbs 


coal 


400 " 


Third charge : scrap . . 


. 2,000 " 


First charge of pig . . 


2,500 " 


" " coke . . 


. 300 " 


" " coke . . 


200 " 


Fourth charge: pig . . 


. 1,000 " 


Second charge : pig . . 


1,000 " 


" " scrap . 


. 1,000 " 


" " scrap . 


1,000 " 







No. 5 Sturtevant fan ; diameter of main blast-pipe, 10". 



Time of starting fire . . 2.30 p.m. 

" charging first iron, 3.15 " 
Blast put on 3.45 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 4.00 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 6.00 " 



Kind of flux used, oyster-shells. 



Amount of iron melted, 8,500 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,300 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 6j^%. 



Fluidity of melted iron, XX. 
Length of heat, 2h. 15m. 



Remarks. — Our work is engines and mining machinery. 



Nov. 12, 1883. 



O. H. WESCOTT, 

Foreman Marysville Machine Works Foundry 



374 



AMERICAN euro LA PRACTICE. 



THE DALLES, ORE. 

COMMON ;'4" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 45" 

Thickness of lining 5^" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 34" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter S4" 

Inside diameter at charging-door 30" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door 10' 

Style of tuyeres : seven 4" round tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyeres 11'' 

Height of tuyeres above sand bottom on back side 4" 



Fourth charge of coke . . 100 lbs. 
Fifth charge of 

pig and scrap, 1,000 " 
" " coke .... 100 " 
Sixth charge of 

pig and scrap, 1,000 " 

" " coke .... 100 " 

Seventh charge of scrap . 1,000 " 

coke . 100 " 

Eighth charge of scrap . . 1,000 " 



No. 7 Sturtevant fan ; diameter of main blast-pipe, 12". 



Fuel used for bed : coke . 


50 lbs 


coal . 


500 " 


First charge of 




pig and scrap, 


2,000 " 


" " coke . . . . 


250 " 


Second charge of 




pig and scrap, 


1,800 " 


" " coke . . . . 


150 " 


Third charge of 




pig and scrap, 


1,500 " 


" " coke . . . . 


100 " 


Fourth charge of 




pig and scrap, 


1,000 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 4.00 p.m. 

Bottom dropped .... 5.40 " 



Time of starting fire . . 1.30 p.m. 

" charging first iron . 3.00 " 
Blast put on 3.45 " 

Revolutions of blower, 2,800. Kind of fuel used, English coke and 
Lehigh coal. 

TOTALS. 

Amoimt of iron melted, 10,300 lbs. I Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 1,450 " Length of heat, Ih. 55m. 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to TxV- I 

Remarks. — The class of work made is machinery and railroad castings. 
With the first six charges, a small per cent of scrap was used. The blast 
is admitted to the tuyeres through a wind-belt 11" X 7". 

JOHN LEWIS, 
Foreman Dalles Car Railroad Works Foundry. 
Fkb. 18, 1884. 



AMERICAN CUPOLA PRACTICE. 



875 



PORTLAND, ORE. 

COMMON 23" CUPOLA. 

Outside diameter 32" 

Thickness of lining 5" 

Inside diameter at tuyeres 22" 

Largest inside or melting-point diameter 24" 

Inside diameter at cliarging-door » , . . 23" 

Height from bottom plate up to bottom of charging-door r . ^ . , 9' 
Style of tuyeres : four 4" round tuyeres. 

Height from bottom plate to bottom of tuyere ^ o . » 12" 

Height of tuyere above sand bottom on back side c 6" 



Fuel used for bed : coke 


250 lbs. 


Second charge of coke . 


75 lbs 


First charge of pig . . 


1,000 " 


Third charge: scrap. . 


. 1,000 " 


" " coke. . 


150 " 


" " coke t . 


50 " 


Second charge: pig . . 


500 " 


Fourth charge: scrap . 


. 500 " 


" " scrap . 


500 " 







Time of starting fire . . 2.00 p.m. 

" charging first iron . 2.30 " 
Blast put on 3.30 " 



First appearance of fluid 

iron 3.45 P.M. 

Bottom dropped .... 4.30 " 



Revolutions of blower, 1,500. Kind of fuel used, English coke. 



Amount of iron melted, 3,500 lbs. 
Amount of fuel consumed, 525 " 
Ratio of fuel to iron used, 1 to 



Fluidity of melted iron, XXX. 
Length of heat, Ih. 



Remarks. — The class of work made is stoves, hollow ware, and jobbing. 
The blower used is an old-fashioned wooden one, made by liaiul. The iron 
came down very hot. The pig used is Glengarnock S«otch. 



Pkb. 18, 1884. 



JOHN MONTAG, 
Foreman Novelty Iron Works Foundry. 



3'?'6 CONTitACTED AND OBLONG CUPOLAS. 



SUPEEIORITY OF EOUND OVER CONTRACTED AND 
OBLONG CUPOLAS. 

A PLAIN round cupola, atout the same diameter at the 
tuyeres as ahove and below them, would melt or run longer, 
all conditions being equal, than the oblong or contracted 
cupola of the same average area, where forced blast was used. 
By " contracted " is meant cupolas that are built so as to be 
considerably smaller in the lower body, as shown in Fig. 114. 
Some years ago cupolas were often lined after this plan. 
Such a cupola would greatly obviate the " cold center " as 
far as getting the blast to the center body of the fuel was 
concerned, but its period for melting would be much shorter 
lived than with a cupola as seen in Fig. 113. Both these 
cupolas are supposed to be of about 8-4" shell. For such 
large cupolas, having a 9" lining, not using center blast or 
the projection H and K seen in Fig. 115, p. 379, it is 
sometimes a good plan, instead of lining them strictly 
straight, to bring them in a little over the tuyeres, about a? 
seen at B. Some advocate when lining a cupola, also a blast- 
furnace, to give it shape about the same as it would be as- 
sumed to have after being in use a while, as for cupolas about 
as seen at A, Fig. 113. For cupolas using center blast and 
having a 12" lining or so, this plan works very successfully. 

In melting large quantities of iron it is essential to have 
all conditions possible to favor continued running without 
bunging-up sufficiently to bridge over or stop melting. We 
have but to look at the design or construction of cupolas used 
in Bessemer-steel practice to get a pointer on this question. 



CONTRACTED AND OBLONG CUPOLAS. 3< 7 

Here we find that cupolas run a week, night and day, with- 
out dropping their bottoms, and if some foundrymen run a 
cupola for three hours, they would think miracles had been 
performed, and so there would, in cupolas of some designs. 
The main secret of running steel-works cupolas for a week 
at a stretch is in having high tuyeres and a space of 13" to 
15" between the bottom of the tuyeres and the top of the 
slag-hole, and good system of slagging out, combined with 
a following of the design shown in Fig. 113, and if such have 
upper tuyeres of one or more rows, they often work much 
better than where they have only one bottom row. Some 
melters, in running such cupolas, do very little " poking at 
the tuyeres," and if their fronts should become clogged up 
they generally let them burn themselves out as the refuse 
blocking up the front of such tuyeres is chiefly only clean 
fuel caked together with chilled droppings of iron, their 
tuyeres being so high above the slag-hole that there is no 
chance for slag reacliing them, which latter element is the 
greatest source of trouble for the melter in foundry prac- 
tice where low tuyeres are used. When some steel-works 
cupola tuyeres are five feet above the bottom, the intelligent 
founder never having had an opportunity of seeing such 
work, will be in position to comprehend why they are able 
to run so long witliout dropping bottom. Of course, most 
founders now understand that the lower the tuyeres are in 
a cupola for foundry ]^ractice, the greater the economy in fuel. 
It is for this reason that cupolas are made having low tuyeres 
and in some shops are essential for the class of work done, 
but nevertheless, many cupolas having low tuyeres would 
prove to give greater all-round economy were their tuyeres 
placed higher. Improper charging of fuel and material is 
another reason why we find round cupolas superior. With 
this class of cupola there is much less likelihood of misman- 
agement in charging, etc., causing bad results. I admit that 



378 



CONTRACtED AND OBLOlSfrT CUPOLAS. 



the oblong form of cupola is an excellent form to obviate the 
cold center, but the center blast or projection, Fig. 115, in 
a large round cupola insures the end sought by making a 
cupola oblong or contracted in a much more satisfactory man- 
ner, and is in keeping with blast-furnace practice using pro- 
truding tuyeres combined with forced blast to penetrate the 
center stock in order to obtain more perfect combustion, uni- 
formly throughout the fuel. As high as 34 ounces pressure 
has been used in large cupolas, thinking thereby to force the 
air to the center to answer the ends of center blast. With 



' H' -^ 



«■*. 



4K 



41 



\ / 



:& 



Fig. 113 Fig. 114. 

Contracted vs. Round Cupolas. 

cold blast such only aggravates the tendency of bunging, to 
diminish the length of time some cupolas can run, and is 
destructive to fuel and linings. According to the area of a 
cupola a certain volume of blast is required, and the milder 
and more uniformly this can be admitted throughout a 
cupola, the better all-round economy is attained. So far, 
no plan has been advanced to achieve this so well as center 
blast combined wifh outside tuyeres, for cupolas over 60" 
in diameter. 

Before the author adopted " center blast " proper, for the 
large cupola seen in Fig. 119, p. 393, he conducted quite 



rO^rtUAOTED AND OBLONG CUPOLAS. 



579 



a few experiments in carrying forward the body over the 
tuyeres for 3" to 6" all round the cupola and finally the pro- 
jections protruding- from the side as shown in Fig. 115, 



--•B 




Fig. 115. 

this page, feeling that a nearer approach to the center with a 
forcible blast would be beneficial. The plan seen in Fig. 115 he 
continued using for about six months, attaining results com- 
paring partially "wath the economy, etc., found with the hot- 



380 CONTRACTED AND OBLONG CUPOLAS. 

torn center tuyere shown in Fig. 119. By an examination 
of the plan view in Fig. 115, which shows a section through 
A B ot the vertical view, there will be seen two projections 
extending out 18" from the inner surface of the lining, the 
one on the side at A or H standing higher than on the side 
B or K. The projection H was carried up higher for the pur- 
pose of having an upper tuyere D to aid in reaching the cen- 
ter with a blast to blend with that blown in at the tuyeres 
E and F, in order to attain the ends sought by " upper 
tuyeres " as generally used. The objection found to this up- 
per tuyere was the repairs necessary at every " heat " to keep 
the point below H in right form, owing to its being so close 
to the " melting point." The lower tuyere of the projec- 
tion K called for but little repair, as at the end of six months' 
running of three heats per week it showed but little wear. 
Some might think that bringing in such radical projections 
as illustrated in this case, would have a tendency to "bung- 
up" a cupola. I would say that we found no difficulty on 
tliis score with our weight of heats, 60 to 80 tons, at that 
lime in this large cupola, as long as the cupola was slagged 
out properly. The idea shown in Fig. 115 is merely given 
for those that might wish to improve very large cupolas, hav- 
ing straight walls that were timid about trying " center 
blast," which has excelled this plan in every way. 



INTRODUCTION TO " CENTER-BLAST " CUPOLA PRACTICE. 381 



INTKODUCTION TO "CENTER-BLAST" CUPOLA 
PRACTICE. 

The following- treatise on " center-bkst " cupolas gives 
the author's latest experience in their use and recommenda- 
tions for application by others. It is to be said that for large 
cupolas, or those over 60" inside diameter at the tuyeres, run- 
ning long heats, " center blast " excels any improvement for 
obtaining economy in fuel, hot iron, fast melting, saving of 
linings, etc., that has been introduced for the past fifty years. 

About the year 1889, the author conceived the idea of a 
" center blast " for cupolas, but it was not until 1892 that an 
opportunity presented itself for him to give his ideas a prac- 
tical test. When he started experimenting with center blast, 
he thought himself the first to introduce the principle, but it 
was found later on that Mr. H. B. Hibler had claims to the 
honor of being father to the idea. Nevertheless, the author 
has reason to believe that he is credited by all familiar with the 
past history of this work, with being the first to originate a cen- 
ter bhist that is practical for every-day use in general found- 
ing, also with being the first to give the public general infor- 
mation of its utility and application to various conditions in 
founding and advocate its adoption. Shortly after the author 
first announced his origin of center blast in a paper before 
the Western Foundrymen's Association, Chicago, October 18, 
1893, Mr. Keim brought out an article in The American 
Machinist, which is given on the succeeding page, after which 
the matter seen on pages 384-387 appeared in The Foundry, 
all of which will serve to show what degree of credit the 



382 IXTRODUCTIOX TO " CENTER-BLAST '' CUPOLA PRACTICE, 

author is entitled to in originating a practical center blast 
and what a few who have tested its principles, think of their 
utility for cupola work. 



'^ Editor American Machinist: 

" In your Nov. 30th issue, Mr. West's article I appreciate, 
also article you kindly publis^hed entitled ' Eemarkable Co- 




Fig. 116. 
Hibler's Pat. " Center blast." 

incidence/ but take exception to the title of the latter. I 
take pleasure in sending you Mr. B. H. Hibler's patent papers, 
which I obtained from Mr. Stewart, patent solicitor here. 
You will notice from the drawing (Fig. 116) that it is en- 
tirely unlike the West central tuyere, as printed in Nov, 3d 



INTRODUCTIOX TO " CKNTER-BLAST " CUPOLA PRACTICE. 383 

issue. This patent being granted Aug. 13, 1867, it is but 
fair to admit that Mr. Hibler invented the first central blast 
tuyere; if it had been a success, would not the enterprising 
cupola builders have adopted it? Would it have been hiddeu 
under a bushel for 26 years? Mr. West's central blast is en- 
tirely different in mechanical construction, as you ynW notice 
in comparing drawings, and looks to me like a great improve- 
ment on Mr. Hibler's. The ' coincidence ' of the central- 
blast question we notice, but compare the drawings and you 
see nothing ' remarkable ' except being so different in design. 

" T. Beverley Keim. 

"Reading, Pa., Dec. 28, 1893." 



384 stott's center-blast cupola. 



STOTrS CENTER-BLAST CUPOLA. 

The following extract of Stott's Center-Blast Cupola 
originally appeared in llie Foundry, July 10, 1894: 

" Mr. Stott declares he first tried this plan in Thibodeaux, 
La., in the year 1888, and has since erected several success- 
fully. His methods incorporating one or two original ideas 
that he says work successfully. 

''AAA illustrates the blast-pipe leading below and up into 
the center of cupola. J represents water-pipes which pass 
into and upwards through center of blast-pipe, the latter be- 
ing covered with fire-clay or other fire-proof material to pro- 
tect it from heat of fuel, and melted metals. B B are the 
drop-doors, so arranged and shaped as to admit of the intro- 
duction of blast-pipe A. C the tap-hole, D D the apertures 
for blast, E hollow iron cone covered like A to protect from 
heat and filled with running water, and which serves to pro- 
tect interior of pipe A from receiving fuel or melted iron. It 
rests on three iron sockets which set into pipe A. 

" There is a joint in pipe A, marked F, which is secured 
when pipe is in position by clamps. In the bottom of pipe A is 
a hinged bottom that maybe opened and closed at will for pur- 
poses of cleaning, and which has a hole filled with lead that 
will melt out in case pipe gets any melted iro'n in it. H is a 
stand for bottom of blast-pipe, and has a flange at top which 
enables the sliding of blast-pipe A forward or b:ickward, as 
may be required before and after casting. I is a water-tank 
for holding- water to feed cone E. While casting this water 



STOTT S CENTER-BLAST CUPOLA. 



385 



passes from tank through pipe K down to pipe J and up into 
cone, from which it escapes into the overflow-pipe and goes 
out by way of L and M." 




Fig. 117. 
Stott's Center-blast Cupola. 



Mr. Stott's plan of center blast differs from the author's 
mainly in having water-pipes run through the center tuyere, 
a principle which, for cupolas running a week at a stretch, 



386 stott's center-blast cupola. 

as in steel-work practice, might, at times, prove of service. 
However, for daily heats only, the author's use of center 
blast causes him to affirm that the water-pipe is not neces- 
sary, and would only detract heat from the fuel in the cupola 
and be troublesome to operate. 



Caldwell's centek-blast cupola experiments. 387 



CALDWELL'S CENTER-BLAST CUPOLA EXPEEI- 

MENTS. 

The following article was printed in The Foundry, Febm- 
ary, 1894: 

"■ A few years ago I made the experiment precisely in the 
same way as described by Mr. West in the November num- 
ber of The Foundry, in a small foundry in Brockport, N. Y., 
in the full belief that I was the first and only person who 
had ever tried such a plan. It gave entire satisfaction; in- 
deed, it exceeded my expectation, as I found I could melt 
faster and hotter with less fuel than any way I ever saw tried 
before, and that is the result all foundrymen are looking for. 
If some of the leading men in the business would give it a 
trial, they would see the advantages it has over all other 
known methods, and its adoption would become common in 
a short time among the foundries, for it will not only save 
time and fuel, but will save the lining, which is a large item. 

" I have been engaged in connection with the foundry busi- 
ness for many years, and have closely watched the many at- 
tempts made to cheapen and facilitate the melting of iron, 
and I feel quite safe to say that the bottom center tuyere is 
the correct way of applying the blast to a circular cupola. Be- 
sides, a cupola can be built much cheaper, as it need not be 
so high above the foundry floor, or the stack built up to the 
skies to keep the coal from blowing out at the top. Iron can 
be melted in an old hogshead without any stack at all (though 
not quite so safely, perhaps,) as in a hundred-dolhir furnace. 



388 Caldwell's cexteu-blast cufola experiments. 

I have been trying to find an opportunity to try my plan in a 
large cupola, as the larger the better, and hope to do so soon. 
"Lancastek, Erie Co., N. Y., Feb., 1894." 



Johnson's patent center-blast cupola. — In Fig. 118 is 
shown a design of center blast patented by Mr. Charles 
Johnson, of Eutland, Vt., June 25, 1895; number of patent, 
541759. The patent was applied for December 1, 1894, a 
little more than a year after the author gave his design of 
center blast free to the world. With what success Mr. John- 
son met in introducing this center blast, the author has no 
information. 




Fig. 118. 
Johnson's Patent Centek blast Cupola. 



ECONOMY OF CENTER-BLAST CLTOLAS. 389 



GENERAL UTILITY, ECONOMY AND CONSTRUC- 
TION OF CENTER-BLAST CUPOLAS.* 

The advantage of having a tuyere carrying blast up 
through the center of the cupola will be obvious to any one 
who closely watches the action of cupolas as the last charge 
approaches within 4 or 5 feet of the outside tuyeres. He 
will then see that the greatest heat and flame is obtained 
right above the tuyeres at the outer circumference of the fuel, 
the center portion being left less active in live combustion. 
Moreover, by watching the blast blowing into the bed of fuel 
before any iron is charged, he will notice a similar action. 
Again, another test is to stand inside a cupola after the bot- 
tom-plate is put up before any fuel is charged in, and allow 
the blast to enter with all its force against a handkerchief 
held in the hand a short distance from a tuyere. This last 
test will be a source of surprise to many, as frequently in 
large cupolas a handkerchief will not be affected by the blast 
if held a foot away from the walls of the cupola or a tuyere 
opening. Of course, the writer does not wish to imply by 
this that when the cupola is filled Avitli fuel and iron, the 
blast will not penetrate further toward the center; but never- 
theless, it is far from exerting the same pressure or giving the 
same volume at the center body as it does at the entrance in 
front of and above the tuyeres. 

One advantage of center blast consists in permitting a 
more uniform distribution of the blast throughout the fuel 

* Revised paper presented by the author to the Iron and Steel Institute, 1897. 



390 ECONOMY OF CENTER-BLAST CUPOLAS. 

in the cupola, and also in permitting the use of a greater 
volume of blast with a decrease of pressure. This with cold 
blast is less effective in choking the tuyeres or in chilling the 
fuel around and in front of the tuyeres. The author's ex- 
perience with central blast clearly shows that, for economiz- 
ing fuel and for securing clean and fast melting, it is not so 
much the pressure but a well-distributed volume of blast that 
is necessary. 

This feature is confirmed by the fact that in some blast- 
furnaces in the United States the output is being increased 
by a larger number of tuyeres having been put in, so as to 
give a better distribution of blast. Grace Furnace, at Briar 
Hill, Ohio, increased its daily output from about 270 to 300 
tons, the increase having been brought about by the tuyere 
space having been divided so as to insert the tuyeres closer 
together and to increase their number from eight to twelve. 
Before the number of tuyeres was increased their pressure 
ranged from 15 to 18 lbs., but with the greater tuyere area 
it fell about 2 lbs. The speed of the engine was kept the 
same, so that it is evident that it was a better distribution 
of blast volume, and not pressure, that was wanted in this 
case to give the best results. 

The theoretical percentage of fuel said to be necessary for 
melting one ton of ii'on in a cupola is 59 lbs. Experience 
sliows. however, that if a ton of iron can be melted with an 
average of 200 lbs. of coke or coal, good work is being done. 
The uneven distribution of the blast is the greatest drawback 
to obtaining the best economy of fuel. 

Since the author has introduced central blast in cupola 
practice, others have adopted the principle by using central 
blast alone, that is to say, independently of outside tuyeres. 
It is obvious, how.ever, that this plan prevents the even dis- 
tribution of blast that is desirable, and, moreover, the central 
tuyere v-'onld soon be so choked as to retard or to wholly 



ECONOMY OF CENTER-BLAST CUPOLAS. 391 

stop the meltii^u;. In all cases where cupolas have an inside 
diameter of more than 50", whether they run short or 
long heats, the central blast should be combined with out- 
side tuyeres. Cupolas that are not expected to run much 
over an hour, and are of smaller size, may for some certain 
conditions be economically worked with central blast alone. 
In no case, however, where heats have to be longer than an 
hour, is central blast recommended to be used alone. 
The best results are obtained with center blast in cupolas 
above 60" inside diameter connected with outside tuyeres and 
running long heats. 

The sources of economy obtained by the use of the center 
blast, connected with outside tuyeres, may be enumerated as 
follows: 

1. Greater economy in fuel. 

2. Less destruction of lining. 

3. Increased speed of melting. 

4. Saving in labor in preparing a cupola. 

5. Less waste of chilled iron and fine shot. 

6. Greater absence of flame escaping from the stack. 

7. Greater freedom for the admission of blast, and less 
labor in keeping the tuyeres open. 

8. As hot and clean iron can be obtained at the end of 
heats as at the beginning. 

The first result is brought about by there being less space 
for fuel in the body of the cupola below the level of the 
tuyeres, and by there being a more nniform distribution of 
the blast throughout the fuel, and, again, by the tuyere open- 
ings being freer to admit the blast. Moreover, the fact that 
the central tuyere openings are at a higher level than the out- 
side tuyeres causes the carbonic oxide formed in the lower 
portion of the cupola to be reduced to a greater quantity of 
carbonic acid gas. The saving of the linings is due to tiiere 
being a less force of blast, or, in other words, less volume of 



302 ECONOMY OP CENTBR-BLAST CUPOLAS. 

carbonic acid gas, jilaying against the lining, owing to its 
being distributed more uniformly throughout the body of 
the fuel in the cupola. The speed of melting is increased 
oAving to the fact that there is greater freedom for the ad- 
mission and more uniform distribution, of the blast through- 
out the fuel. There is also a smaller quantity of carbonic 
oxide escaping. Labor is saved because less chilled material 
is formed round and in front of the tuyeres, owing to a more 
uniform distribution of the blast. The lessened waste in 
chilled iron and fine shot is due to the higher and uniform 
temperature, better preventing the accumulating of chilled 
sitock around the tuyeres during the process. Moreover the 
milder distribution of blast throughout the fuel does not 
give rise to the accumulation of excessive bodies of chilled 
material in front of the tuyeres to lessen the melting area. 
The greater absence of flame at the charging-door and stack 
which may be attained, is due to a more thorough combustion 
in the melting zones, owing to the fact that the carbonic 
oxide formed in the lower portion of the cupola is more com- 
pletely converted into carbonic acid before it reaches the 
charging-door. By proper manipulation of the blast-valves 
(see W and L, Fig. 126, p. 406) the combustion can be made 
so perfect that at the end of a heat but little flame or sparks 
can be seen escaping at the stack compared to cupolas not 
using center blast. The greater freedom for the admission 
of blast and the less labor involved in keeping the tuyeres 
open, is the result of there being less chilled iron and refuse 
collected in front of the tuyere openings. The increased 
fluidity of the iron is due to the more perfect combustion. 
It is also due to the greater freedom from chilled material 
collectingaround the tuyeres, diminishing the area of a cupola 
available for live fuel during the progress and ending of a 
heat. 



CONSTRUCTION OF CENTER-BLAST CUPOLAS. 



393 



Construction of Center-Blast Cupolas. 

In the latest form of center-blast cupola adopted by the 
author, the center tuyere is so designed as to form a perma- 




Fig. 119. 

West's Permanent Center-blast Ttiyeke Citpola. 

nent or stationary structure which remains in its place when 
bottoms are dropped. Its construction is shown in Figs. Ill* 
to 125. It is obvious that such a design would be unsuitable 



;3!)4 COXSTRrOTTON" OF CKJCTKR-BLART cttpolas. 

for cupolas under 60" in inside diameter. Illustrations 
of designs best adapted for smaller cupolas is seen in Figs. 
126 to 130, pp. 406, 407. In all cases of cupolas over 50" 
inside diameter it is generally best to have outside tuyeres 
in addition to the central one. , 

Some difficulty has been experienced by founders, who 
have adopted center blast something after the author's de- 
sign, with the burning out of the covering-cap shown at A 
(Fig. ,119). The author has no knowledge of the type of cap 
used in these cases. At his own foundry, however, he has 
had the same cap-casting in use in the 66" cupola (Fig. 
119), running daily heats ranging from 60 to 100 tons, for 
one year at a stretch, and have it in as good condition as it 
was when first put in position. 

Many imagine that, on account of its being incased in the 
center of a cupola surrounded by incandescent fuel and mol- 
ten iron, the center tuyere would be unable to resist for any 
length of time the heat surrounding it. A study of the con- 
ditions obtained shows, however, that when all is working 
regularly such a tuyere is not subjected to a temperature 
high enough to burn or melt the tuyere lining. In fact, the 
temperature at the lower portion of the center tuyere is not 
much higher than that to which the lining of the ladle hold- 
ing molten metal is exposed. It may also be said that as long 
as the covering-cap is not extended too high above the 
level of the outside tuyeres, it is not subjected to a much 
higher temperature than the lower portion. One reason, no 
doubt, why many have experienced trouble with covering-caps 
is that they have carried them up too high, so as to bring 
them up close to the melting zone, or not constructed and 
cared for rightly. The central tuyere's blast-opening should 
never be carried more than 3" to 6" above the level of the 
outside tuyeres. 

In order to lessen any danger of injury to the cap, with 



OOXSTlU'c IION' Op ( ENTKU-BLASt CUPOLAS, 305 

green men, the autlior lias used, with success, a method 
of charging, whicli consists in })]aeing the first charge 
of iron' in tlie form of a circle, with a hole in the center larger 
than the diameter of the covering-cap. This is then filled 
with fuel (see Fig. 120), instead of having the center all iron, 
as well as the outer portion, as is the usual practice. 

It is also advisable to protect the edge at B (Figs. 119 and 
132) by placing, as shown at F (Fig. 124), pieces of |" 
round iron and nails, projecting about an inch, placed to- 
gether as closely as they can be cast in, and then daubing 
them over with clay. Not only is the edge of the covering- 
cap protected in this way, but the whole body of the cap- 
casting is prepared in a similar manner. The iron prickers 
shown should project 2" to 3" from the body of the 
cap-casting. The casting should not be less than 1^" 
in thickness at any part; it should be 3" to 4" larger in 
diameter than the top of center tuyere at H, in order to 
prevent molten metal dropping from the cap and leaking 
into the tuyere. For the space between the cap and the top 
of the center tuyere for the admission of blast and other 
blast-openings or areas, see p. 405. The under side of the 
covering-cap at P, Figs. 119, 122 and 124, may have short 
projections of about V east on it, and daubed over with 
clay. But as the cold blast is constantly playing against this 
surface, there is little danger of it becoming too hot if 
cupolas are kept fairly constant in blast. In cases where 
they are left to stand for an hour or two without the blast 
being on, it is desirable to prepare the under side of the cap 
as described. In order to support the cap in place, 1|" 
pieces of square wrought-iron bars are bolted to the center 
tuyere, as shown at 8, Figs. 119, 122 and 123. A recess W 
of about 3* in depth is cast in the cap-piece. Figs, llf) 
and 124. This recess permits the cap to be fitted over the 
1|" support (Figs. 119 and 123), to hold it in position dur- 



396 CONSTRUCTION OF CEKTER-BLAST CUPOLAS. 




Fig. 120. 
Plan for Charging the Bed op Center-blast Cupolas. 



CONSTRUCTION OF CENTER-BLAST CUPOLAS. 



ag- 



ing the heat. It is best to make this recess having a solid, 
square center as seen at U, Fig. 131, which then leaves an 
opening at Z to admit the entrance of the four 1^' square 
bars seen at 8, Figs. 119 and 123. Such a construction in the 
recess would prevent the bending inward of the bars S should 
they become heated red hot from any cause. The dimen- 
sions given with Fig. 131 show that of the pattern from 
which the covering-cap is moulded, before the prickers for 
holding the clay are made in the mould. The test applied 




Fig. 121 



at the author's foundry, in the cupola seen in Fig. 119, has 
been a severe one, for the length of heats is not merely of an 
hour or so duration, but range from four to six hours. It 
will be noticed that the pipe-connection and wind-belt for 
bringing the blast to the outside tuyeres are not shown in 
Fig. 119. It is, however, necessary that dampers or valves 
be provided, so that the central and outside tuyeres can be 
worked together or separately, so as to regulate the blast- 
pressure at will. One plan for such valves is seen at W and 
L, Fig. 126, p. -lOG. WTiere long heats are run, there is a 



398 CONSTRUCTIOX OF CENTER-BLAST CUPOLAS. 

liability of the center tuyere chilling the stock at K. This 
difficulty can readily be obviated by shutting off the blast for 
a short time from the center tuyere, so as to permit the 
heat of the cupola to melt any chilled material that might 
be clogging the opening of the center tuyere at K. Some- 
times a piece of half -melted iron may lodge in front of the 
opening at K, and obstruct the fluid iron in its direct descent 
to the hearth of the cupola. The escape of sparks, etc., down 
a center tuyere caused in this manner can be stopped al- 
most instantly by increasing the blast-pressure in the center 
tuyere. The door V is so arranged' as to' be readily opened 
or closed, in order to permit the removal of any iron or slag 
that may have fallen to the bottom of the center tuyere. 

The center tuyere itself can be made all of cast iron^ or of 
boiler plate. For a permanent structure a cast-iron tuyere is 
])referable, as it presents greater rigidity, and is made at less 
cost. The center tuyere, as at X (Figs. 119 and 123), is 
made about an inch thick, with ribs throughout its length 
on the periphery (as shown at C, Fig. 123), in order to sus- 
tain wrought rings of ^" iron for supporting the clay, 
which is about 3" thick. (For methods to daub and 
dry the clay on center tuyeres and caps, see p. 410.) These 
rings are shown in position in Fig. 123. Cast-iron projec- 
tions or prickers have been tried in place of these rings, but 
the inconvenience of properly casting them on to the body of 
the tuyere renders them undesirable. Fig. 122 shows the cen- 
ter tuyere, with its covering-cap daubed over with clay ready 
for a heat, or as it would appear in position on the base in 
Fig. 119. The base is made in sections, so that the section 
M, Fig. 119, can be removed if anything goes wrong with 
the center tuyere. The main opening of the tuyere could 
then be stopped with clay, it being necessary for this pur- 
pose to place a 1ar?e lump on a plank, levered on a horse so 
as to press it upwards into the interior of the center tuyere's 




Fig. 122. 



Fig. 123. 




Fig. 124 



399 



roNSTiir(;TioN of center-blast cui'olas. 401 

opening. It would then be tightly closed against the descent 
of iron or blast and the heat could be finished by the use of 
outside tuyeres only. It will, of course, be understood, that 
this is only a precaution against an accident that might 
never occur; and further, in the case of such an accident the 
part of the center tuyere remaining in the cupola would, in 
some cases, be melted up, requiring a new tuyere to replace 
the old one. In fact, the author keeps a whole set on hand 
to have them ready in case of accident, and such a set can 
now be seen at our foundry (May, 1901), covered with rust 
awaiting use. It is not to be taken for granted, because the 
author has called attention to the unexpected that might 
happen to disable center blast, that any one need be alarmed 
at its not proving a success. Mishaps can occur to outside 
tuyeres and in fact to almost any workings in founding. All 
that the author has done in thus calling attention to the lia- 
bility of accidents occurring, is what any practical founder 
would do in providing for the worst and guarding to insure 
the best — provisions which, as a general things cause all to 
go well. 

With the center blast shown in Figs. 119 and 135, pp. 393 
and 402, the author has effected at his foundry a saving in 
fuel of 20 to 30 per cent according to the quality of the 
fuel, over what could be done if we run our heats with out- 
side tuyeres only. Apart from this economy, the advan- 
tages enumerated at the beginning of this paper are sufficient 
to warrant the adoption of center blast, in large cupolas. 

Some time ago we raised the outside tuyeres about 6", 
from that shown in Fig. 125 to have them the height seen 
in Fig. 119. This enabled the cupola to hold a larger mass 
of metal, and at the same time there was more space between 
the slag-hole and the outside tuyeres. Tlie change resulted 
in an increased speed in melting and in still cleaner working 
of the cupola. "Where long heats have to be run or where 



402 



CONSTRUCTION OF CENTER-BLAST CUPOLAS. 



slagging out is necessary, it is especially important to have 
a good space between the slag-hole and the outside tuyeres, 
as when they come close together, as seen in Fig. 125, it 
brings the slag up too near a level with the outside tuyeres. 




Fig. 125. 

West's Pekmanent Standing Center Blast for Large 
Cupolas. 

where the incoming cold blast can readily chill the slag, 
lower t]:2 temperature and may eventually choke or badly 
bung the tuyeres. The outside tuyeres in Fig. 119 are shown 
of round form. A better form is that seen in Fig. 125, and 
which shows the outside tuyeres to be of an oblong form. 
This cut also shows a plan whereby the pipe leading the blast 



CONSTKUCTIOK OF CENTER-BLAST CUPOLAS. 403 

to the center tuyeres cooinection at T, can be attached nearer 
the bottom doors, if necessary, although that shown in Fig. 
119 is the best plan when it can be followed. 

In conclusion, the author trusts that the new illustra- 
tions and descriptions, with the extended experience he now 
brings forward, will afford further proof to the public of tho 
general utility and economy of center blast for large cupolas. 



40i CONSTKUCTION OF CEJSTER BLAST I'OR SMALL CUPOLAS. 



CONSTRUCTION AND UTILITY OF CENTER BLAST 
FOR SMALL CUPOLAS. 

It is to be "understood that while the author presents here 
the illustration seen in Figs. 126 and 130, pp. 406, 407, for con- 
structing center blast in small cupolas, they are not advised 
for general use, but more for isolated cases or localities where 
material has to be melted that is exceptionally destructive 
to linings or where good fire-bricks are very costly or can- 
not be obtained. One great objection to center blast in small 
cupolas is the extra labor and trouble they cause to remove 
them out of a cupola's dump at every heat, and set them in 
position again ready for another heat, as with cupolas less 
than 55" inside diameter they cannot be a permanent struc- 
ture, as seen in Figs. 119 and 125. pp. 393,402. This is owing 
to a lack of sufficient room in which to move around while 
picking out and daubing up a cupola where much cinder, 
etc., would stick to the sides after a bottom was dropped. 
In cases of very short heats, where no outside tuyeres were 
necessary, then it might, in some cases, be practical to use 
a permanent standing tuyere. However, for cases where the 
center tuyere would best be dropped with the bottom at the 
end of a heat, the author has designed the plan seen in Figs. 
126 and 130, pp. 406, 407, and which is a plan that will save 
much labor in getting the bottom up and a center tuyere in 
place ready for a heat. It will be noticed by Figs. 127 and 128 
that the drop-doors are constructed in such a manner that 
one-half has an opening made in it by which the blast can 
be carried to the center tuyere direct, without the use of un- 



CONSTRUCTION OF CENTER BLAST FOR SMALL CUPOLAS. -\0') 

der }jii)mg, as seen necessary for Fi<js. 119 and 125. It wiil 
also be noticed that the drop-doors for cupola Fig. 126 calls 
for a greater height of bottom sand by two to three inches 
than is usually adopted in the ordinary cupola. This may 
be objectionable for small cupolas, but the same can be over- 
come by having the drop-doors extend lower with a flange 
around- the circumference to project upwards to close the 
bottom-plate of the cupola, as suggested at B B, Fig. 128, 
and cutting a piece out of the bottom-plate at B, Fig. 126, 
and then strengthening the same with a wrought sheet, 
bolted to the bottom-plate. For holding up the drop-doors, 
with props, two bars are to be used as represented at E, Fig. 
126. One to be on each side of the blast inlet circle. H is 
a door so liinged and held up by means of the weight, wire 
rope, hook and staple seen at M, P and F, that should any 
occasion call for the door being opened suddenly to release any 
slag or molten metal that might, from any cause, leak down 
the center tuyere, it can be quickly operated without causing 
any stoppage or much loss of blast. (S^ is a peep-hole to be 
closed with isinglass. .4 is a rib to make a backing for clay 
to tightly close the joint of the drop-doors in its union with 
the wind-box K, and which should be of the same area at A 
for the admission of blast as that for the area at U. D is 
a recess to admit a slide-valve to close the end of the drop- 
doors. iV is one of the ear-lugs for hinging the drop-doors. 
li is the sand bottom showing the cupola ready for its bed 
of fuel, C the center tuyere and X the covering-cap. W 
is the branch blast-pipe for the outside tuyere and L for the 
center tu.yere. 

In obtaining the blast area of the opening at U, Figs. 126 
and 127, are to be found by dividing the area of the cupola 
by 30. Tf the cupola is 40" inside diameter, this gives an 
area of 41.86", or in rough figures an opening 4" X 10", and 
at J a diameter of about 7". This rule can also be applied to 



406 CONSTRUCTION OF CENTER BLAST FOR SMALL CUPOLAS. 

find the mean diameter of the opening at M and /, Fig. 125, 
for all center tuyeres, which, for a 30" cupola, gives an open- 
ing of 5-J" diameter, for a 50" about 9", for a GO" about 11", 




"West's Improved 



Fig. 126. 

Center Blast' 



FOR Small Cupolas. 



and for a 70" cupola, about 12|" opening at the points M 
and /. This is to be understood as the mean diameter, and 
as the tuyeres are tapering, the top at / is intended to be 
2" less diameter than the bottom at M, thus making the 
opening at I about 4|, 6, 8, 10 and 11|" respectively, for the 
diameters of cupolas above described. The width of the 



CONSTRUCTION OF (JENTTER BLAST FOR SMALL CUPOLAS. 407 

opening at K, Fig. 119, and at V, Fig. 136, for tiie admis- 
sion of the blast to the cupola, should range from 3^" to 3^"; 
the larger the heats, the greater should be this opening. 



Section 




Drop if oor 



Fig. 127. 





Fig. 128. 
Plan of Plain Half 
Drop-door. 




Fig. 129.: 



Fig. 130. 



408 INSTRUCTIONS FOR UTILlZIN^O CENTER-BLAST. 



GENERAL APPLICATION OF AND INSTRUCTIONS 
FOR UTILIZING CENTER BLAST. 

It requires a little experience to utilize " center blast " 
to the best economy. But when a cupola man learns to utilize 
center blast in large cupolas running long heats, he will be 
the first to object to its being taken away, for the reason 
that it saves him much labor in picking out and repairing 
his cupola. Then again, when the cupola is in blast he finds 
little or no labor necessary to keep his tuyeres open, as it is 
remarkable what a difference exists in having free tuyeres 
as against the practice of not including center blast in large 
cupolas. In first adopting center blast one is not expected 
at the very first heat to charge with a radical change in de- 
creasing the fuel, but gradually trying less every heat until 
he finds by trial just how low he can get. At the start the 
foundryman can at least d'epend upon reducing the " bed " 
in bulk whatever the bulk of his center tuyere may occupy, 
and between charges have about 10 per cent les-s fuel. A 
poorer grade of fuel can be utilized with center blast than 
with outside tuyeres alone. 

There is nothing in the construction and erection of cen- 
ter blast that should cause any practical founder to hesitate 
to adopt it. It will be found most economical in the use of 
fuel and speed of melting to have the outside blast about 
equal in pressure to the center to whatever degree the blower 
or fan can drive it through the entire opening of the dampers 
in both connections. A large cupola Avill stand harder driv- 
ing to force fast melting, where the center and outside 



INSTRrCTlON^! FOR UTILIZTNO CENTER BLAST. 409 

tuyeres are used in connection, than where eitlier are used 
alone. The larger the cupola, the more pronounced are the 
henefits in this line. It must he remeuibcred that whenever 
the outside and center tuyeres are combined, the opening 
of the center tuyere admitting the blast to the fuel should 
be carried up to a height of from three to six inches above 
the level of the outside tuyeres. 

If the center tuyere is used alone, as is practical in small 
cupolas running heats of not more than one hour's duration, 
it need not project above the level of that found best for 
economy of fuel with outside tuyeres, as by this arrangement 
less fuel can be used for the bed; but it must be remembered 
that this is not recommended for small cupolas that may be 
taxed to run heats of more than one hour's duration. Where 
center tuyeres are dropped with the bottom, as in use with 
small cupolas, there should be one or more extra tuyeres in 
reserve to replace any badly fractured ones, and instead of 
daubing these up when they are erected in a cupola, they 
should be previously prepared and dried in ovens. By adopt- 
ing such a plan, a chance is afforded of having a solid, per- 
manent lining and filling up any cracks firmly with soft clay, 
after which the whole surface could be blacked over to still 
further protect the new lining until it is hardened and glazed 
from the effects of its first heat in the cupola. 

The thickness of the clay to be used when first lining a 
center tuyere should be put on the body of the tuyere, so as 
to project about two inches beyond the rings, Nns. 1. 2, 3, 
4, 5 and 6, Fig. 133, p. 399. and have it appear as at O, Fig. 
122. Accidents have happened by reason of the clay on the 
center tuyere wearing to such a thinness that it pr^nnittcd 
the metal to bum through the casting C, and hence start the 
tuyere leaking. To guard against such, it is a good plan, if 
judgment cannot be relied upon, to . have two standard 
gauges and occasionally caliper the diameter of the tuyere 



410 INSTRUCTIONS FOR UTILIZING CENTER BLAST. 

at its bottom and top, which, if found to be less in size than 
the gauges called for, can be built up to give the necessary 
protection by patching on clay over the rough surface of the 
tuyere's lining. 

In using the permanent center tuyere originated by the 
author, shown in Fig. 119, it can often have the green clay 
daubed on with the tuyere (Fig. 123) in position and then 
by building a little fire at the opening of the center pipe at 
V, Fig. 119, supporting the tuyere, the same can be dried, 
where the time of five to seven hours will permit of such .i 
process. Upon first starting to use center blast the author 
thought he was going to have difficulty in obtaining ma- 
terial for lining that would stand the heat. Experience has 
shown that his fears were groundless, and all that is neces- 
sary is to use a fair grade of common fire-clay, mixed with 
sharp sand, and to make the whole of a consistency found 
good to daub large ladles or cupolas. Where fair fire-clay 
cannot be obtained, it may often work well to strengthen 
common clays with plumbago or coke-blacking, wet with a 
solution of silicate of soda. A center tuyere prepared in the 
manner above described will, after the first heat, present a 
hard, glazed body, which may resist high fusing effects of 
Ihe cupola's heats, for a dozen heats or more before requir- 
ing patching with clay, and foundrymen thus using center 
tuyeres will often be surprised at the small amount of clay 
necessary to repair the tuyere and cap and keep them in 
good order. In order to have about as hot iron at the be- 
ginning of a heat as will be found at the latter end, where 
center blast is used, it is well to rob the first charge of fuel 
to raise the height of the bed. Where this is not done, the 
first melting can often be found duller than that obtained 
at the latter part of a heat. Another point by regulating 
the volume of blast through the center and outside tuyeres, 
the cupola man will soon find that he is able to greatly re- 



IKSTKUCTIONS FOR UTILIZING CEflTER BLAST. 4il 

tard the escape of flame and s])arks at the closing of a heat. 
Again, if any sparks sliould emanate from the center tuyere, 
from any cause, they can generally be stopped by making 
most of the blast to pass through the center tuyere for a short 
period. 

Since the publication of the authors origin of center 
blast, p. 393, he is led to believe that many have been trying 
center blast and doing its introduction more harm than good, 
mainly through a lack of experience in founding, and not 
knowing that what may work well in one ease may not in 
another. The instructions herein given on the construction, 
use, etc., of center blast are the result of over seven yearii' 
experience of the author in the perfection of center blast, 
to make it practical for every-day use, and any one may adopt 
it upon the lines herein described, with the assurance that if 
fair judgment is used in first utilizing center blast, success 
will be assured and the results finally attained demonstrate 
center blast to be the most scientific and economical method 
yet advanced for large cupolas. 



412 NATURAL- AND SUCTION-DHAFT CUPOLAS, 



INTEODUCTION TO NATUEAL- AND SUCTION- 
DEAFT CUPOLAS. 

There is no machinery founder or moulder of long ex- 
perience who has not, to a greater or less degree, imbibed 
a feeling of dread that something may break down or the 
unexpected happen Just at the worst moment to stop 
the blast and cause trouble before an important casting 
is poured or a " heat " is finished. The natural-draft 
cupola has many qualities to commend itss adoption for 
certain lines of work, one of which is in sections of 
the country where a foundry is placed out of the reach 
of quick repairs, or situated where it would be desirable 
to dispense with an engine, its boiler, etc., and then, again, 
in localities where boiler fuel is exceptionally expensive. 
It is also adaptable for a class of work which might call 
lor slow but contin'uous melting — as, for example, in cases 
where a founder has but little floor-room or would prefer 
to avoid carrying a large number of flasks, etc., in order to 
produce a large day's yield of castings. 

The author does not wish to convey the impression that 
a natural-draft cupola could equal a forced blast in speed of 
melting. Of course, the larger a natural-draft cupola the 
greater the quantity of iron it could melt per hour, so that 
in one way it is only a question of size in order to increase 
speed in melting; and were it not for the question of economy 
in fuel, in using large cupolas to melt small bodies of iron, 
it is plain that we could economically adopt natural-draft 



NATUHAL- AND SUCTION-DRAFT CTPOLAS. 41:! 

cupolas to meet the requirements of many shops for speed in 
melting. 

The great advantage which a natural- or suction-draft 
cupola offers in some instances to founding has weighed upon 
the author to such an extent as to cause him to seriously 
consider the practicability of natural draft, and as a result 
of his research, study and experience, he offers the design 
shown in Figs. 132-136, and which are for the free use of 
any one. 



414 ALLEN^S NATUKAL- DRAFT CUPOLA. 



ALLEN'S NATUEAL-DEAFT CUPOLA. 

In a paper on melting without blast, published in The 
Foundry, April, 1895, Mr. J. McCash says: 

" In the November issue of The Foundry, I find a very 
good, practical article by Thos. D. West on the subject of 
blast for cupolas. He expresses the desire to use a cupola so 
constructed as to work without blast-fans, etc. In 1854, I 
was employed in Allen's foundry, Springbank, G-lasgow, 
Scotland, working on hollowware. In the shop where I 
worked — it kept busy twenty-five or thirty moulders, all of 
whom worked piece-work, on stove plate and hollowware 
principally — this cupola was used daily and was oblong in 
shape, being about four feet the long way across by three 
feet the narrow way. The tuyeres were flat wedge-shape and 
were all the w^ay around except the necessary places to sup- 
port the upper part of shell, the inside opening of tuyeres 
being about five inches, the height from tuyeres to top being 
about ten feet, or about equal to the cbarging-door of 
ordinary cupola. The top was covered with a revolving cover 
resting upon trunnions at the ends and lined with fire-brick. 
The charges of pig iron and fuel were placed on the cover 
and dumped inside by turning the handle, when the cover 
was brought back to its original position. Underneath the 
cover was a large flue, similar to that used in a brass furnace, 
entering into a tall stack; its exact height I do not remem- 
ber, but it had sufficient draft to produce hot metal for light 
work. This cupola had been a long time in use and is seen 
in Fig. 131. 



ALLEN-'s NATURAL-DRAFT CUPOLA, 



415 



" It was said that the owner, Mr. Allen, had to pay a 
royalty for the privilege of erecting it. 

" I do not know what the result would be, but it seems 
to me that a well-built furnace of that description ought to 
melt iron more economically than the present method.'* 





Fig. 131. 
Allen's Natukal-draft Cupola. 



416 NATURAL- AXD SUCTION-DRAFT CUPOLAS. 



CONSTRUCTION OF NATURAL- AND SUCTION- 
DRAFT CUPOLAS.* 

The natural-draft cupola illustrated on p. 415 probably 
presents the best success with which natural-blast cupolas 
have met, and I largely attribute this to the fact of the 
Allen cupola being of an oblong shape, which admitted of 
air reaching the center body of its fuel much better than had 
it been of a round form. In a study of the reason which can 
be assigned for the failure of some natural-draft cupolas, I first 
found that every time a charge of stock was admitted to the 
cupola, a large area was opened which admitted such a volume 
of air at the top as to cause a decided check to the draft. 
All founders know that any temporary lull, no matter of how 
short duration, with force blast, checks the speed of melting 
and often results very seriously in causing " bung-ups." The 
second bad point I found lay in there not being sufficient 
tuyere area and means for regulating the same according as 
the atmosphere influenced the draft, which is seldom found 
two days alike, no matter how high a chimney may be con- 
structed. The third drawback I found was in not providing 
methods for the proper deliverance of slag, and to prevent its 
rising to a level of the tuyeres, as it can easily do in a cupola 
as the length of a heat advances if not properly arranged for. 
The author has endeavored in the design shown (pp. 418 to 
422) to overcome the evils above described and which to his 
mind have prevented the success of natural-draft or suction 

'■■ Revised extract of a paper presented by the author to the Foundrymen's Asso- 
ciation, Philadelphia, Pa., June 5, 1895, 



NATURAL- AND SUCTION-DRAFT CITOLAS. 417 

cupolas iu the past. How far he may have succeeded will 
be best decided by a practical test and which could be most 
economically done by any one having one or two high chim- 
neys conveniently located, to which the draft for such a 
cupola as here shown could be connected. It is said that two 
chimneys of a medium height may often work better than 
one very high one. Fig. 136, p. 422, shows a 40" cupola, 
mainly for the reason that this size is about midway between 
those in general use. To build smaller or larger cupolas than 
that shown, I would advise following the horizontal propor- 
tions, and increasing or decreasing the vertical proportion 
(see p. 422) by increasing or decreasing the height one-half 
of the measurement that the diameter proportions are in- 
creased or decreased. The total tuyere area for any size of a 
natural- or suction-draft cupola should range from 60 to 70 
per cent of the area of the cupola's largest inside diameter. 
The area of the continuous tuyere A is to be found by divid- 
ing the largest area of the cupola by 2 and the first row 
of tuyeres by 9, the uppermost row M by 20, and the cen- 
ter-dnaft tuyere N Nhy dividing the largest area of the cupola 
by 35. 

It is well to have the bottom or hearth portion of the 
cupola constructed wholly independent of the bosh and stock 
body, so that a perfectly continuous t^iyere opening can be 
obtained, as seen at A. The upper and lower plates protect- 
ing the brickwork at this tuyere are made of cast iron about 
one and one-half inches thick, the upper plate being best 
constructed of one continuous circle, whereas the lower plate 
could be in sections if so desired for convenience in being re- 
placed should it crack or be burnt out in any way from 
outflowing metal. The upper plates are held in place to sup- 
port the npper brickwork by having a flange project upward 
on the outside and bolted to the shell as shown. To aid in 
supporting the brickwork in the bosh and stack portion. 



418 



NATURAL- AND SUCTION-DRAFT CUPOLAS, 



an an<jlc-iron, as seen at D, should be placed around the inner 
portion of the shell about every two feet in height. The same 
columns used to support the bosh and stack portion of the 




Fig. 132. 
Section Through X 2. 

cupola can, by having projecting flanges, as seen at E, Fig. 
136, also carry the hearth portion, and this body can be raised 
or lowered so as to increase or diminish the height of the con- 
tinuous tuyere by means of " blocking " or jack-screws placed 
between the flange E and the cupola's bottom-plate, as shown 
at F, by making the difference between the flange and bot- 
tom-plate greater in distance than shown. " Blocking " is 



NATURAL- AND SUCTlON-lJRAFT CUPOLAS. 



41S 



preferable to jack-screws, etc., as the latter, in many 
foundries, can be made readily inoperative at such points by 




Fig. 133. 
Top Plan of Cdpola. 

means of flying sparks of iron or dirt getting in between the 
threads of the screw or nut, or joints of levers. 

To regulate the draft, a wrought-iron gate-belt about a 
half inch thick is made to encircle the cupola as seen at 
H H, Fig. 136, and in the plan view. Fig. 133. To raise or 
lower this belt, a weight G is used, having two wire ropes I 
passing over the pulleys •/ /, seen in Fig. 136; the rope 
after passing over these pulleys, J J, is then carried down to 
come under pulleys or small sheaves, seen at L in Fig. 136, 
passing from these to sheave-wheels at right angles to L, 
secured opposite each other on the cupola's shell. At this 
point the rope branches off in two directions on each side to 



420 



NATURAL- AND SUCTION-DRAFT CUPOLAS. 



connect with the gate-belt at the points 1, 2, 3 and -i, seen 
in Fig. 132. Should it be desirable to secure this gate-belt 
H closely around the tuyere opening A, so as to shut off all 
possible admission of draft, this can be readily done by ad- 
justing or tightening screws or clamps at the points A A, 
Fig. 132, and packing the taper access at the outer edges 
B R with clay. To stop all draft passing through the center 




Fig. 135. 



tuyere, a door is hung having the lug 0, Fig. 136, for sup- 
port at one side and a latch-catch at the other. When these 
two openings and the belt H are closed, in connection with 
stopping the breast with clay or sand and closing the chim- 
ney-valve flue, we have a condition practically the same as 
that implied in the " banking of a furnace." To be able to 
thus bank a cupola, is a feature that may at some time be 
well utilized. 

After the stock is charged around in the space at K as 
seen on the right at Fig. 136, the charging-door? as at T are 
then closed as seen at X on the left, and then by pulling on 



KATURAL- AND SUCTION-DUAFT CCPOLAS. 421 

the weight W, the conical cyHnder Y (made conical to pull 
out of the stock easily) is raised and the stock slides down 
to fill the cupola. According to the speed with which the 
closing cylinder Y is raised, so can the locating of stock be 
largely regulated as to its being chiefly charged to the outer 
or inner circle, and thus afford facilities to arrange the fuel 
and iron at any desired portion of the cupola's area. This 
is a very essential point to insure uniformity in. melt- 
ing and lessening the chances of " bung-ups " and short- 
lived heats. Even where the charging arrangements as shown 
are not necessary for preventing an inrush of air at the top 
every time stock is delivered to the cupola, the point of in- 
suring evenness and any desired distribution of stock in 
charging in itself recommends the adoption of such a charg- 
ing device as here illustrated. 

As arranged in Fig. 136, the charging cylinder cone Y can 
be raised two feet or more. It will not be out of 
place to say that when it is necessary to charge massive 
pieces, this should be done. In charging heavy pieces 
in the cupola they should be placed in the last one or two 
charges near the top, and this should be done before the draft- 
gates are opened to start the process of melting. It will be 
seen also that the principle involved in the charging arrange- 
ments will admit of raising the charging cylinder cone Y 
up out of the way to admit good light to the cupola, or the 
entrance of a man in making any repairs or lining a cupola, 
and also permit of the fullest freedom in passing down kind- 
ling to form the bed for first firing, or iron for the first 
charges in the cupola. The cone Y cannot drop into a cupola 
should the rope or chain used break. It would be well where 
long heats are run to have the cupola made two to three feet 
higher from the bottom-plate to the charging-ring than that 
shown in Fig. 136. 

This cupola can largely dispense with our present neces- 



J- H^^< ^^Wl 



CHARGING PLATFORM 







Fig. 136. 
West's Natukal-draft Cupola. 



422 



NATURAL- AND SUCTION-DRAFT CUPOLAS. 423 

sary evil of ta^jping out or stopping up when desirable, and 
which is another advance over our present practice. In long 
heats or where much slag is created, it might he necessary 
to have a blow-pipe or a jet of gas bum at the breast-hoje 
so as to prevent the slag chilling as it flowed out against the 
draft pressure with the iron. At the first meltings it might 
be found necessary in some foundries to bank the breast to 
a height near the top of the center-draft tuyere opening so 
as to insure a body of metal quickly collecting in the revolv- 
ing stand-ladle seen at the spout of the cupola, Figs. 132 and 
136. After a body of metal of about the height shown is col- 
lected in the stand-ladle, the slag which may emanate from 
the cupola to float on top of the metal in the stand-ladle, or 
fine coke dust or blacking, can be used to hold the heat of the 
molten metal so as to possess sufficient fluidity in the metal 
coming from the stand-ladle to pour light work as well as 
heavy. For obtaining different degrees of fluidity as the iron 
comes from the cupola to the stand'-ladle, we have recourse 
to the same methods which we use with force blast, which, 
with natural or suction draft, would simply mean regulation 
of draft and fuel and the height of continuous tuyere open- 
ing at A. 

It will be noticed that I have planned a new form of stand- 
ladle, one which can empty itself of iron on one side or of slag 
on the other, without having to stop the outflowing stream 
of iron in its passage from the spout to the stand-ladle. This 
stand-ladle can be turned by hand or by means of spur or 
worm gearing. Should any one desire to have such a cupola 
arranged so as to hold large bodies of iron before tapping, or 
to dispense with the stand-ladle shown, they can readily do 
so by raising the height of the continuous outside tuyere and 
center-blast opening to whatever level desired, and then tap 
out as in regular practice. 

It will be well at this point to discuss how natural or sue- 



4'v'4 NATUllAL- AND SUCTION-DUAFT CU TOLAS. 

lion draft gives us promise of economy in melting. One ad- 
vantage is that fuel is not necessary to raise steam to run 
fans or blowers. One shop may burn nearly as much fuel to 
raise steam for a fan as is used in the cupola to melt iron. A 
natural draft moreover is less destructive to linings owing 
to the fact that we know a mild blast is much less in- 
jurious to a lining than a strong forced blast. Again, the 
expense is saved of keeping up repairs due to break-downs 
of appliances, in the form of fans, belts, pulleys, shafting, 
engines, etc., in a shop using forced blast. 

While we must acknowledge that there are days when 
chimneys may have little or no draft, no matter how high 
they are, still this should not debar us from utilizing natural 
draft, as such rare occurrence could be often largely overcome 
by building a small fire in the bottom of a chimney through 
an opening provided for that purpose. Then, again, there 
are economical methods by which we could obtain the as- 
sistance of suction draft on such occasions. We have not 
shown any chimney to accompany the cut of Fig. 136, p. 422, 
but all are to understand that the flue XX seen on the right 
of the cut is extended for any length necessary to connect 
itself with one or more chimneys, the height of which will 
depend upon localities. 

The cupola, Fig. 136, should not exceed the cost of our 
present cupolas, especially when we consider the high.' stacks, 
boiler, engine, etc., necessary to force-draft cupolas. 

It is not a question whether iron will melt by natural draft, 
for this is demonstrated to be practical in the Allen cupola, 
p. 415, and is often done even in our present cupolas before 
the blast is put on; and to stop the iron from melting, tuyere 
openings are often closed to shut off natural draft. But the 
question is, can we melt fast enough by natural or suction 
draft? For some lines of work or conditions the author 
would say yes. One thing, however, is evident: if we cannot 



NATUKAL- AXD SUCTION-DRAFT CUPOLAS. 425 

melt fast enough with natural draft, we should often be able 
to do so with the assistance of suction draft; and inasmuch 
as suction draft is not incompatible with the use of the 
cupola herein illustrated, with its several accompanying ad- 
vantages and improvements, the design is presented as one 
which, for some peculiar or certain conditions outlined in 
the introduction (p. 412), may prove of much value. 



426 UTILITY OF HOT-BLAST CUPOLAS. 



UTILITY OF HOT-BLAST CUPOLAS. 

The question is often asked, why " hot blast " would not 
work well and be more economical than cold blast for cupola 
practice. Every now and then some one is trying experi- 
ments in this line, believing he has original ideas which would 
work successfully. Tlie author has thought an article on the 
subject, to illustrate what has been done and the success at- 
tending such experiments, would be of interest to founders 
and possibly be the means of saving time and money to any one 
who might think to experiment in this line. For this reason 
the author presents herewith what information he has been 
able to obtain on the subject, and also his own experiments, 
suggestions and ideas on this question. 

Large stacks have been built on cupolas containing coils 
of piping so arranged that the blast would come in at the 
top and be carried through them to the tuyeres as heated air. 
The author has tried the plan of having cold blast pass 
through pipes suspended in the stack about four feet above 
the top of the charging-door and having the hot air pass 
down to the tuyeres. Then, again, the plan has been tried 
of curving the stack and of carrying the escaping gases down 
to a brick oven on the ground which was filled with coils of 
piping. All of these plans proved unsuccessful. 

A late firm of Alleg'heny, Pa., is said to have used hot 
blast in a cupola for the purpose of converting into pig metal 
old iron and " suggens," that is, large lumps of scrap iron 
made from *' boils," etc., around a blast-furnace. They used 
&n oven filled with pipes somewhat after the plan of blast- 



UTILITY OF nOT-BLAST CUPOLAS. 427 

J'uruace " iron-stoves," which they heated wholly by natural 
gas, independent of the cupola's waste gases. The plan is 
reported to have assisted the cupola to run freely, and to 
have advantages over that of cold blast. 

Some have tried to draw hot air from the stack of a cupola 
by means of a pipe leading from the stack to the fan's air 
entrance and then drive the air to the tuyeres as ordinarily 
done. This has proved a failure, owing to the hot air heat- 
ing the fan and burning the belts, etc. Then, again, such 
a plan, the author would say, would be objectionable on the 
ground of the air, which was drawn from the cupola, being 
loaded with injurious gases ot a blast less rich in oxygen 
than that which would come from the atmosphere. There 
have been what are called " jacket-cupolas," designed with a 
view to having the blast enter at about the level of the charg- 
ing-door to a space of about two to four inches wide around 
the curcumference of the whole body of the cupola before it 
can descend to the tuyere entrance. There are no records 
to show that such a plan has proved of any advantage. 

One element which is a detriment to utilizing waste gases 
in making warm or hot blast for cupolas in the majority of 
foundries at the present time is this: That many cupolas 
have conditions which permit their being in blast but one 
or two hours at a heat, thus atfording very little opportunity 
for the w^aste gases to get pipes, etc., heated to a degree suflfi- 
cient to raise the temperature of the blast which Avould pass 
through them, in order to do much good before it would be 
time for the " bottom drop." Where a cupola with one row 
of tuyeres must depend on its own gas to heat its blast, it 
would have to be running from one-half to one hour before 
the pipes in it or an oven could get sufficiently heated to 
raise the temperature of the blast to any effective degree. 
Many cupolas would have their heats run off by the time 
blast would be heated to a point to be of much benefit. The 



428 UTILITY OF HOT-BLAST CUPOLAS. 

expense of keeping pipes and ovens in repair more than 
counterbalanced any economy which was derived from hot 
blast in the past, by means of a cupola's own gas or stoves 
heated by special firing of coal or gas to run off short heats. 

Some interesting illustrations of hot-blast cupolas are pre- 
sented by M. Gouvy, Jr., in a work translated from the 
French by W. F. Durfee, M.E.* The cupola seeming to the 
author the most practical of those shown is that seen at Fig. 
137, p. 429. The plan of this cupola is to collect the metal 
in a crucible, B, independent of the cupola proper, and have 
the heat from the metal held in the crucible and gases, which 
would blow through the outlet E to heat up the blast-pipes 
seen in the upper inclosure A. M. Gouvy, in commenting 
on the utility of hot blast for cupolas, says: 

" Finally, we conclude that heated air for blowing cupolas 
only results in an increase of their melting power in conse- 
quence of the elevation of the temperature of the zone of 
fusion; but we do not find any economy of fuel, which fact 
is attributable to the zone of fusion extending to a very 
much greater height than when cold air is used, and there- 
fore the carbonic acid formed at the tuyere encounters a very 
large surface of incandescent coke, which effects a reduction 
of gas, and the advantages of heating the blast are annihilated 
by the loss of heat due to the transformation of this carbonic 
acid into carbonic oxide." 

"With regard to M. Gouvy's conclusions, the author 
would say that if we increase the melting power of a 
cupola, we should find economy in two ways, one of which 
is to permit small cupolas running larger heats than they 
otherwise could, and the second important factor, which 
seems to have been lost sight of, is that of the benefit to be 
derived in greatly preventing tuyeres from being bridged 

* Presented before the Franklin Institute, 1889. 



UTILITY OF HOT-BLAST rUPOLAS. 



429 



over and finally "bunging-up " a cupola to the extent which 
cold blast effects such action, and which, we must also re- 
member, can often cause quite a loss in "^ shot iron," etc., 
being contaminated with the refuse of a cupola's chilling.s 
and droppings. Then, again, to use hot blast, cupolas should 
be made as high as practicable. This would give the eleva- 




Fig. 137. 
The Tittl and Erndt, or Modified Kuigar System. 



tion of the temperature about which M. Gouvy speaks a bet- 
ter chance to heat up the iron before it comes down to the 
melting point and cause some saving of fuel. 

Another point is the benefits which might be expected in 
utilizing hot blast to further advance the utility of ^' center 
blast." By having warm or hot blast enter through a center 
tuyere, wc would obtain the same benefits to be derived in 



430 UTILITY OF HOT-BLAST CUPOLAS. 

the center tuyere being kept open to freely admit the blast, 
as is stated for outside tuyeres; but if hot blast is used for a 
center tuyere, it might, with temperatures over 500 degrees, 
require some cooling arrangement similar to that shown in 
Fig. 117, p. 385. 

Our present state of advancement appears to offer no de- 
sign that has proved of any special benefit in economically 
utilizing the waste gases to raise the temperature of cold blast 
to any beneficial degree for short heats. But for long heats, 
especially in cases where center blast is used in large cupolas, 
we have conditions more favorable for utilizing waste gases. 
However, in cases where warm or hot blast can be cheaply 
obtained from independent sources, good results and economy 
in working the cupola should be obtained in short as well 
as in long heats. 



MELTING STEEL. 



431 



MELTING 


STEEL IN AN ORDINARY 30" CUPOLA. 




lbs. 




lbs. 


Ibi. 


Fuel for bed : coke . . 


250 


Fourth charge : pig . 


300 


Seventh charge : Bcrap . 300 


coal . . 


200 


" " scrap 


300 


" coke . 50 


First charge : pig . . 


1,200 


" " coke 


50 


Eighth charge : pig . . 300 


" " coke . . 


50 


Fifth charge : pig . 


300 


scrap . 300 


Second charge : pig . 


300 


" " scrap 


300 


" coke . 100 


" " scrap . 


300 


" " coke . 


100 


" coal . 100 


" " coke . 


50 


t^ixth charge : pig . 


300 


Ninth charge : steel . . 1,200 


Third charge : pig . . 


300 


" scrap 


300 


" " coke . . 100 


" " ecrap . 


300 


" " coke . 


50 


Tenth charge : steel . . 1,000 


" " coke 


50 


Seventh charge : pig 


300 




Time of starting fire . 




. . 2.15 P.M. First appearance of fluid iron . 4.27 P.M. 


Time of charging first 


ron 


. . 3.15 " Bottom dropped 6.46 " 


Blast put on ... . 




. . 4.20 " 







Revolutions of blower when on steel, 1,900. Kind of fuel used, Birmingham coke 
and Lehigh coal. The cupola in which we melted this heat is the one given on p. 371; 
as the dimensions of cupola can there be seen, it is not shown with this report. 



Amount of steel melted 

" iron melted . . 
" fuel consumed 



TOTALS. 

2,200 lbs. 1 Ratio of fuel to iron used 
5,400 " Length of heat .... 
1,150 " I 



. . 6.66 
lb. 25m. 



Remarks. — The" American M.ichinist" of Aug. 23, 1884, contained an account of my 
" Melting Steel in an Ordinary Cupola." Since then, by experimenting, we have learned 
something of the nature of it, and not only found the class of %vork we can use it in to 
best advantage, but have also made a decided improvement in manner of melting and 
fluidity of metal. The method of charging is different from the account I gave in the 
article referred to. We have not melted a heat of steel alone, not having occasion to 
melt more than 1,000 to 2,000 pounds at a time. We continue to melt it right behind the 
cast-iron portion of the heat, as above shown. As soon as the last charge of cast-iron 
begins to settle away from the charging-door, we keep the cupola full of steel up to 
the charging-doors until the last has been put on : this gives it the benefit of a long heat, 
and when it reaches the melting-point it comes down (to use the expression of a moulder 
here) "hot enough to run a needle with the point up." It is very fluid when it first 
comes from the cupola. While it does not remain fluid as long as cast-iron, I am satisfied 
a very large piece could b» poured with it. I notice, by agitating it in the ladle, it " gums 
up" around the ladle quicker than cast-iron. 

Charging in above manner, the cast-iron all melts down ahead of the steel. Then 
there is a cessation in the melting for a few minutes before the steel starts : once started, 
it melts very fast. The appearance of the metal is so different from cast-iron in the fluid 
state that we can tell it as soon as it starts from the cupola. 

The steel scrap used is of a class known as " slab, or agricultural steel ; " and we have 
melted 60,000 out of the 75,000 pounds we had on band, besides using up all the scrap 
that has been made since then. By itself, the steel runs porous. By adding one-sixth 
cast-iron to the charges, we find it runs the castings very close and solid, and harder 
than the steel alone. For furnace-liners, back-plates, grate-bars, brake-shoes, etc., it is 
superior and more serviceable than cast-iron. In light castings annealed, I feel sure 
it would make stronger castings than malleable iron. 

Last fall, .J. C. Albrecht, master machinist of the railroad shops here, complained 
about the chilled truck-wheels, shipped him here for section masters' hand-cars, cutting 
out and getting flat places in them in a short time. We asked him to let us make a set 
of steel-rim wheels for a trial. He placed an order with us for two sets of wheels, steel 
rim, 26" diameter, 3^" face, J" thick, 1" flange, ten |" round wrought-iron spokes, set 
zigzag in hub; hub of cast-iron; weight of wheel, 120 pounds. They have had to stand 
the test through the most severe winter we have had in the South for years. Having 
filled orders for 150 since then, is evidence of the satisfaction they are giving. 

The above heat was melted April 24, 1885. 

ROBT. E. MASTERS, 
Foreman Columbus Iron Works Foundry, Columbus, Oa. 



4:32 MELTING AND MIXING STEEL WITH CAST-IRON. 



MELTING AND MIXING STEEL WITH CAST- 
IRON TO OBTAIN STRONG OR CHILLED 
CASTINGS. 

As a supplement to the previous page, the author offers the 
following few notes, which the readers will no doubt find inter- 
esting and of value. 

The union of steel with cast-iron has of late years been much 
practised for the purpose of either adding strength to or 
increasing the depth of chill to cast-iron, ideas and notes upon 
which will also be found in vol. i., pp. 272, 297, 298, and 299. 
It might be well to here state that wrought-iron has also been 
used in mixture with cast-iron, sometimes being melted in the 
cupola and again mixed in with the cast-iron after it was 
melted. I have heard of its being used as high as 33 per cent 
in mixture with cast-iron melted in a cupola. 

The greatest per cent of either steel or wrought-iron which 
can be mixed in with liquid cast-iron after it is melted, will, of 
course, depend on how "hot" the fluid cast-iron is, and what 
it is intended to be poured into. I would not have the reader 
understand by the above term, "greatest per cent," that the 
more cast-steel scrap there is mixed in a ladle or cupola 
with cast-iron, the stronger should the product be. As far as 
strength is concerned, I would be led to say there is a limit, 
and that it greatly depends upon what grades of steel and cast- 
iron are mixed together. The cast-iron, in order to obtain the 
greatest strength in product of mixture, will be greatly affected 
by the amount of carbon the steel and cast-iron contain. A 
soft or low carbon steel should produce a much stronger product 
than a hard or high carbon steel ; and I have no doubt but that, 



MELTING AND MIXING STEEL WITH CAST-IRON. 433 

from a careful mixture of low-carhon steel tvith low-carbon cast- 
h-on, proportionately strong castings could be produced. The 
result obtained from a mixture of high-carbon steel with cast- 
iron can be such as to impair the original strength of the 
cast-iron. 

Steel, as is well known, contains less carbon than cast-iron, 
and more than wrought-iron, the latter sometimes containing 
but a trace. Carbon is held in cast-iron in a combined and in 
an uncombined state. When combined, it is chemically united 
with iron, as seen in hard or white cast-iron ; and when uncom- 
bined, the carbon appears in the fonii of graphite, as seen in 
No. 1 grades of foundry soft gray iron. Cast-iron containing 
carbon in the graphite or uncombined state requires a higher 
temperature to melt it than when it is chemically combined 
with the iron ; and the larger per cent of chemically combined 
carbon iron contains, the less heat is required to melt it. 

The more carbon there is in wrought-iron, steel, and hard 
cast-iron not only causes it to be melted easier, but also makes 
it retain its life or fluidity longer. 

Carbon can be given and taken away from iron or steel. 
Fuel will supply it, and air eliminate it. When wrought-iron or 
steel is melted in a cupola, both of the above agencies are at 
work upon it ; and while we can in one sense say they are being 
weakened through oxidation, we can in another sense say they 
are also weakened through carbonization; for when steel, etc., 
is mixed in among fuel, and there melted, it cannot but be 
affected by it, as the oxygen of the atmosphere combining with 
fuel in a cupola creates carbonic acid and carbon oxide, wliich, 
when liberated in concert with other gases, — such as sulphur, 
etc. — which fuel contains, all go towards destroying tlie 
original strength of scrap-steel or wrought-iron scrap. 

When we see, in the manufacture of steel, that the slightest 
per cent of a component can so materially change its nature, 
what can we expect in the way of certainty iu producing grades 



434 MELTING AND MIXING STEEL WITH CAST-IKON. 

out of a cupola, where steel is tumbled in with a congloniera- 
tion of cast-iron and fuel, of a chemical analysis radically 
different and much more impure than steel, etc. 

To procure a homogeneous product from the mixture of steel 
with cast-iron, as a rule, seems to have been poorly accom- 
plished. The steel mixes with the cast-iron in such a manner, 
that, when castings are turned or bored, hard spots or mottled 
surface often appear. 

In melting steel with cast-iron there are, however, a few 
things which can often be done in assisting to obtain a uniformity 
in percentage of the material charged : as, for instance, did one 
desire castings made of one-fourth steel and three-fourths cast- 
iron, the material should be carefully weighed and charged ; and 
in charging the cupola, adopt the method set forth in vol. i. 
p. 304. The method there described will at least insure the 
production of the mixture as charged. Of course, if there were 
enough weight of the steel mixture to make a heat by itself, 
then the mode above referred to would not be necessary. 

Another point which might be well to mention in regard to 
obtaining a uniform mixture is, that the more metal there can 
be collected in a large ladle, and agitated by stirring with a 
"mixer" or wrought-iron rod, the better homogeneous castings 
will be produced. No one should expect, that, by catching and 
pouring the metal into small work as fast as it melts, the cast- 
ings produced can contain the uniformity in mixture they would 
where large bodies of the metal are first collected before the 
pouring commences. Of course, in the case of large castings 
the metal would, through necessity, require to be collected in 
large bodies. For small castings the metal would, in being 
collected, require covering with dust, etc., in order to " hold its 
life ; " or, where it was to be made a steady business, a closed 
reservoir could be used ; the iron as it melted, running into it, 
could, after a body was collected, be taken out in " small taps " 
as requiied. There are of course many castings which will not 



MELTINO AND MIXING STEEL WITH CAST-IRON, 435 

be much injured through irregularity in uniformity of mixture. 
The above points are simply to give ideas to assist thorough 
and equal mixing in eases where fine work is required. 

In charging steel mixed with cast-iron, or alone, in a cupola, 
the steel cannot but be injured through carbonization and oxida- 
tion. Were air-furnaces or crucibles used (which I believe 
could be made practical for the purpose) for melting steel, the 
above injuries steel receives would be greatly overcome. I sim- 
ply here suggest "air-furnace" and "crucible" for the purpose 
of presenting something that may be of value to those inclined 
to experiment with scrap-steel to the end of obtaining strong 
castings. The author would state that the above suggestions, 
written 1885, would seem to have been followed by some to 
i:)roduce what is known since 1896 as "semi-steel," a product 
gaining a tensile strength of 40,000 to 50,000 pounds per 
square inch. 

Samuel M. Carpenter of Cleveland, 0., who holds letters- 
patent No. 173,159, awarded him Feb. 8, 1876, upon a process 
for the immersion of steel into liquid cast-iron, claims that 
the only way in which cast-iron can be strengthened by a mix- 
ture with steel is by melting the steel immersed in liquid cast- 
iron, thereby preventing it from contact with the blast of air 
which oxidizes the steel and impairs its strength when melted 
in cupolas. Scrap steel melted with cast-iron in a cupola, for 
the purpose of hardening or giving a deep chill to castings, is 
at least effective. While in some ways I agree with Mr. Car- 
penter, I would say that it depends largely upon the character 
of the mixture. It is generally safe to conclude that soft 
grades of cast-iron can be strengthened by mixture with low 
carbon steel, but what to expect from hard grades or pig-iron 
above No. 2 is rather difficult of conclusion. 

Almost all kinds of scrap-steel can be melted (borings, etc., 
are best melted by being j^acked in cast-iron pots, etc.), and 
classes of castings found in which it may often be well 



436 MELTING AND MIXING STEEL AVITH CAST-IKON. 

utilized. The melting of cast-steel in cupolas, as far as manip- 
ulation is concerned, is in principle the same as melting 
cast-iron. For steel, more fuel and blast-pressure may often 
be required than for iron. 

Scrap-steel when melted in a cupola produces a product 
somewhat similar in nature to "white iron.'' 

With reference to melting steel or wrought-iron in ladles of liquid cast- 
iron, previously referred to in this chapter, it should be stated, that, when 
borings or small nails are used, the latter, if rusty, should be brightened by 
means of " tumbling ; " as immersing rusty scrap is not only dangerous to 
the eyes, but retards its melting. If, however, heavier scrap, as i" round 
iron, is used, it can be melted by immersing the scrap twice in a ladle, the 
first ladle being simply used to heat the scrap as nearly to a fusing-point 
as possible, and the metal, having the scrap held back with a " skimmer," 
can, without great loss in temperature, be used to pour some moulds or fill 
up a larger ladle. The scrap remaining in the ladle is again filled at the 
cupola with fresh-tapped metal. This scrap twice immersed should, with 
good hot life-keeping metal, melt from 10 to 15 per cent of short, rustless 
I" round wrought rods. Heavier scrap could be melted by first heating it 
to nearly a fusing-point in forge or floor fires. In respect to which of the 
two — steel or wrought-iron — most toughens cast-iron, it may be said, that 
which contains the least carbon. As a general thing, wrought-iron, contain- 
ing the least carbon, would be most effective in giving strength to cast-iron; 
and for castings requiring toughness, the more wrojaght-iron that can be 
mixed homogeneously with cast-iron, the sci-ouger can some grades be made. 
Irons ranging from 1.00 to 3.00 in silicon, with sulphur under .05, can be 
strengthened as a rule. 




i 



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15- TON 

l^OWJEIt CllJ-JSK 

Veaiifiicd l>y 

I'SOy, JUevhaiiicul litiur., 

'iiclund, Ohio. 



Section at 
Hottotn Centre 



FOUNDRY CRANES. 



STEAM-POWER CRANES. 

As an introduction to the following chapters upon cranes, 
the author wishes it understood that no patents cover any of the 
devices shown, and that any one is at liberty to use and profit 
l^y any of the ideas set forth. The author's mode of dealing 
with the construction of cranes is one which is not only original , 
but also one which he thinks all will agree is practical, and of 
real value to the mechanical engineer as well as to the foundry- 
man. 

There are two classes of cranes in general use in foundries, — 
the jib and traveller. The traveller is chiefly used for heavy 
work. The designs of cranes in use are somewhat like those of 
cupolas, very numerous. The designs of some cranes, so called, 
are wonderful to behold : all they lack is wings to complete their 
representation of the bird after which they are named. If some 
of them were to fly away, their loss would not cause much regret. 
There is probably no foundry tool formerly so illy constructed 
as the crane. Many were built by men who probably never 
had been inside of a foundry until they were called upon to 
erect a crane. 

To build a good working crane requires not only some science, 
but also demands observation and experience in their use. The 
user of cranes should be one fitted to know their requirements. 
The class of crane which is now receiving much attention is the 
power crane. The hand crane is giving place to it, and it is 
only a question of time when the power crane will be as com- 
mon as hand cranes now are. As there are many who have 

437 




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438 STEAM-POWER CRANES. 

no idea of the principle of constructing power cranes, and as 
those who have like to learn of all the styles, I thought it 
best to begin the subject by the illustration of the power 
crane. In this I am greatly indebted to the courtesy of 
Messrs. Griffith and Wedge, the Niles Tool Works, and W. 
H. Thompson, M.E. 

The advantages of power over hand cranes are readily seen 
where they are in nearly constant use. In this city we have a 
pipe-foundry using several steam cranes ; under one of them, 
at present, there are being daily cast one hundred and ten 6" 
pipes. In making one hundred and ten pipes, it is safe to say 
two thousand crane movements are required, hoisting and low- 
ering, racking in and out, or swinging. The flasks in which 
these pipes are made, I should judge, are about thirteen feet 
long. The castings are made in a deep pit, which, of course, 
means the pipes are cast on end. To see how quickly the 
moulds are taken out of drying-pit, cored, cast, shaken out, 
and the flasks set, ready to be again rammed up, would make 
one think lightning was the motive power. 

The cranes used in making these pipes were designed by 
the same person who designed the one shown in Fig. 138. The 
crane there shown is one adapted for machinery work, and is 
arranged so as to be sensitive in its operation. The pipe-shop 
cranes have four cylinders instead of two as here shown. The 
reason for having four c^'linders is so as to make the racking 
and revolving independent of the hoisting gear, and also to 
save a complication of clutches, gears, etc. The crane here 
shown is not revolved by steam-power, the work not requiring 
it. The crane engineer stands upon the platform, which is 
about four feet above the floor, or clear of flasks, etc. A 
thirty-ton crane, which Mr. Thompson lately designed, has the 
cylinders and platform about six feet above the floor. 

The steam crane h'ere shown is operated, in hoisting or lower- 
ing, by the lever A, and in racking out or in by lever K. The 




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STEAM-POWER CRANES. 439 

brake-lever is at B. The mitre wheels, seen at E^ transmit 
power to the rack. The arrangement is such that the racking 
and hoisting or lowering can be done at the same time. In 
lowering heavy or light loads, steam is used ; and then, by 
means of the brake B, any desired speed in fall can b6 obtained. 
The crane can hoist slow, and have no sudden jerking ; thereby 
enabling us to use it in drawing patterns or setting cores, which 
is about the most sensitive work cranes can be subjected to. 
Should it be desirable to operate the crane by hand instead 
of by steam power, all that is required is to place a crank 
upon the shaft, as seen, and throw the hand- rack chain into 
fne sheave grooves, and loosen the nut at E^ seen in end 
elevation. 

The cylinders are 7"xl2". Steam is carried through about 
one hundred and fifty feet of 2" pipe, which is well covered so 
as to prevent condensation, as well as liability to freezing in 
winter season. With a pressure at boiler of from forty-five 
to fifty pounds, the crane will easily hoist fifteen tons. The 
weakest point of the crane is the hoisting-chain. As this is |^", 
and of best proof, twenty tons could be lifted. There is cyl- 
inder enough for thirty tons ; in fact, the same pattern is to be 
used for a thirty-ton crane lately designed. For cranes under 
fifteen tons capacity, cylinders 5"xl0" are used. 

There are steam cranes having only one cylinder. With such 
:here is too much trouble caused by their getting on a " dead- 
centre." Having two cylinders, and cranks at right angles to 
each other, makes such a thing impossible. 

The frame of this crane is all iron, a section of which is as 
shown in the enlarged scale. In the manufacture of these 
beams, what are called heavy and light beams are made. In 
the crane shown, the heavy beam is used for the jib, and the 
light one for the mast and brace. 

In drawing the end elevation, I omitted showing a few parts 
which the close observer will miss. To make the crane clear, 




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440 STEAM-POWER CRANES. 

I thought it best onl}- to show the more important points and to 
describe the rest. 

The gear R, and all upon the same shaft, seen in side eleva- 
tion, were they shown in place in end elevation, would muddle 
up the view ; so, to save confusion, the shaft N is again shown 
at top of end elevation. 

In operating the crane, the gear R has motion transmitted 
from the largest wheel, TF, upon the crank-shaft. The gear /S 
is fastened to the gear li ; and both, like the friction-wheel 
gear Y, are loose upon the shaft. The clutch seen upon this 
shaft works either way by moving the lever A. As it slides 
upon a key, which is fitted in the shaft, sliding the clutch to 
either side of course gives motion to the shaft, by which hoist- 
ing or lowering can be done. The gears H and F, upon the 
racking-shaft, at £", are also loose upon the shaft ; and it is not 
until the clutch is engaged with either of the wheels that any 
racking can be done. The wheel S., on shaft J\r, engages with 
H upon rack-shaft E, and Y engages with F. The small 
pinion X, seen on shaft with crank handle on, engages with 
a. The diameter of the drum is 18^". The pitch-line of all 
the gears is shown in side elevation ; so that, with the above 
explanation, there should be no trouble in understanding the 
"motions." A plan of the shop in which the author daily used 
two of these cranes is described on p. 225. He can recom- 
mend power cranes for foundry use, as an appliance worthy of 
adoption, not only on account of their speed in handling work, 
but also because they are less fatiguing to employees, as well 
as because they enable the shops to handle heavy work with 
the same advantage and ease during dull times, when the shop 
has but few men, as when working with a full force. 

Before closing this chapter, the author would specially call 
the attention of designers to the importance of constructing 
power cranes so that they can be advantageously worked by 
hand-power. Of course, for a line of castings, such as or 



STEAM-POWER CRANES. 441 

similar to the requirements of pipe-making described above, 
hand-power would not be of much use. But for shops that 
make a line of machinery castings, the abilitj' to operate by 
hand as well as power will often be found valuable ; for then 
the crane can be operated, when, through accident to the boiler 
or pipes, or otherwise, steam could not be obtained or used. 



442 FRICTION POWER CRANE. 



FRICTION POWER CRANK. 

The G-riSith & Wedge (Zanesville, 0.) power cranes shown 
opposite were used iu foundry of the Niles Tool Works, Ham- 
ilton, 0. Several cranes stood in a row, and were worked by 
one line of overhead shafting, to which power is transmitted 
by belt. The top gudgeon A, being hollow, admits of the 
shaft B passing through it ; and being engaged by the mitre 
wheels at S, the shaft R revolves the driving friction pulley Y. 
To throw the crane into power-hoisting gear, the lever D is 
pulled, which presses the friction drum against the friction 
pulleys F and Y. 

To throw the crane into hand-hoisting gear, the shaft H and 
gear V slide out, thereby engaging the clutches at X. The 
pinion Z, also gear M', is keyed to the sleeve : this sleeve, of 
course, revolves upon the shaft H. When driving the crane 
by power, the gear F, which is keyed to shaft H, being, as 
shown, engaged with gear G, drives the pinion L, which then 
transmits power to gear M, thereby revolving the sleeve and 
pinion Z. The gears L and G, being keyed to the brake-shaft, 
make the brake operative, whether the crane is worked by hand 
or by power. 

These cranes have a platform at the rear, so the operator 
revolves with the crane. This also places him high enough to 
handily reach all the levers. The crane's frame is made of 
pine. 

One special feature is that of the carriage. It is not only a 
handy carriage, but a short one. Many cranes lose nearly half 
of their working floor area through having a long carriage. 



FRICTION POWER CRANE. 



443 




There is little sense in 

building a crane in which 

the length of jib cannot 

be more than half utilized. 

One should remember that 

the floor room located within 

the "sweep" of the crane 

jib should be such as couk] 

be used for crane work. 

Some may think that the 
sheaves, shown in the plan 
of carriage, could be made 
smaller in diameter, and 
thereby- allow of a still 
shorter carnage. This 
could of course, be done : 
but the 18" . sheaves, as 
shown, are advantageous in 
two respects, — first, they 
are easy upon chains ; sec- 
ond, they prevent twisting 
of the chain when revolving 
the crane hook with a load 
suspended from it. 

Many use a style of car- 
riage similar to that shown 
in annexed cut, Fig. 140. 

Here the sheaves, B, //, 
which the chain or rope, 
A K, passes over, are upon 
two axles. The carriage of 
the crane made by Messrs. 
Fig- HO. Griffith & Wedge has 

sheaves (as shown in Fig. 139), which answer the same pur- 
pose as B, 11, Fig. 140, upon one axle. With Fig. 140 style of 



444 FRICTION POWER CRANE. 

carriage, one can often see the hoisting-chain lianging out of par- 
aUel, as shown. Bringing the chains close together, as at E, i.i 
often done in this style of carriage, for the purpose of making a 
short carriage. When the hoisting-chain in two parts, as here 
seen, is contracted out of parallel, as at E^ there is more or less 
trouble caused when turning the hook R. I have often been 
obliged to lower down and take part of the weight off a crane 
before I could turn the hook without twisting the chains. Such 
bother as this is very annoying, besides causing loss of time. 
I think that it is evident that a shorter carriage can be practi- 
cally worked, made after the style of the Griffith «&; Wedge 
carriage, than the one shown in Fig. 140. 

Another point which would be well to notice is that of the 
moving or racking of the carriages. There are many devices 
for this purpose. With chains there is often much annoyance, 
caused through their stretching ; and, again, the chain will be 
so situated as not to move the carriage steadily. I see by the 
Griffith & Wedge design, the carriage is made, as far as prac- 
ticable, to overcome these evils. It is hardly to be believed 
that a chain will stretch as much as it does. I have often been 
obliged to cut out from one to two feet in rack-chains during 
the first week or so they were used. Many carriages are made 
with no provisions for taking up any slack. As will be seen 
at ir, a simple arrangement for this purpose is provided. 
Having a slack rack-chain often causes much bother, and, 
whei-e there is no provision for taking it up, it has to be often 
taken down and cut off, involving much labor. 

As will be seen in the plan of carriage in Fig. 114, the two 
sheave wheels are carried to one side of the carriage, in order 
to allow the hooks, W and 0, to which the rack-chain is hitched, 
to have a pull as near to the centre of the carriage as is prac- 
tical. Many carriages are moved by a rack-chain upon each of 
their sides ; again, others will have only one at the extreme out- 
side or in the centre. The thing to be sought for, in moving a 
carriage, is that it shall move along steadily, and have no tnore 



fUlCTION POWER CRANE. 445 

friction Kpori one side of jib than upon the other. A good way 
lo accomplish this is to pull with one chain as near the centre of 
carriage as possible. To pull with two chains would be better, 
were it possible to have them always pull even and alike. This, 
I think it is safe to say, is seldom done, even with the flat link 
chain which is the best to adopt for that purpose. "Where there 
are two common link chains pulling a carriage, one will often 
see first one and then the other pulling, every change causing 
a jerk. Were the links of chains all of an exact length, and if 
they would not stretch, then with a true pitch-chain sheave they 
could be depended upon to pull alike. 

The blocks of cranes often cause us moulders trouble. They 
are frequently made so liglit that it requires the hanging-on of 
weight to pull them down. Again, they will be made without 
any guard, as shown at D, Fig. 140, p. 443. With such blocks 
trouble is often caused by their getting out of the sheave grooves. 
As seen in the blocks of the Griffith & Wedge crane, there is 
not only a guard, but the blocks are heavy enough to pull the 
chain down. It is not necessary that a large sheave be used 
in order to make weight. Should a small sheave be used, the 
cheeks of the blocks could readily be made heavy enough to 
aid the weight of sheave in pulling down the chain. 

There is not quite the objection to the chains hanging out of 
parallel, caused through small lower blocks, that is stated with 
reference to the chains narrowing up at the upper or carriage 
blocks shown on p. 443. However, when practicable, it looks 
and works better to have the lower sheaves large enough to 
cause the chains or ropes to hang parallel. 

Driving-power for cranes is not limited to the two modes here 
shown : s6me use hydraulic power. The latest means is the 
employment of electricity and pneumatic power, both of 
which have proven of such advantage that it is now rare to 
find steam or hydraulic power being applied to foundry 
cranes. 



446 HAND-POWER IRON CRANE. 



HAND-POWER IRON CRANE. 

Although power cranes have many advantages over hand 
Cx-anes, the simple mechanism of the latter is alone a factor 
which will always command attention. The simplicity of hand 
cranes is such as to allow their being made by almost any firm, 
whereas the power crane will often require to be "built out- 
side." 

Before 1880 the frames of cranes were almost entirely 
made of wood ; but at the present time most cranes are made 
of iron, the low price of iron making this construction nearly as 
?heap as when made of wood. Iron is really the proper mate- 
rial. Iron cranes not only look neat and light, but they are 
durable, and will keep their original shape. Wooden cranes, 
through unequal shrinkage, get more or less out of shape, 
thereby often causing trouble with carriages, gears, and chains. 

The iron hand crane (Fig. 141) of Messrs. Webster, Camp, 
& Lane, Akron, C, which I am enabled to here show, is very 
simple in construction and readily worked. The end elevation 
shows the crane as one would see it if viewed from the front. 
The gears are shown engaged for " fast motion." To engage 
for "slow motion," the pinion A is pushed into contact with 
the gear B. The cranks, or handles, are removable, so that 
for either speed two handles may be used. 

Some cranes are so arranged that the handles always remain 
upon the one shaft. In such cases they are generally secured 
by means of a nut or pin upon end of, or through, the shaft. 
Where handles are not thus secured, they should, as shown at 
F, have plenty of shaft length. In this, as well as other fea- 




tv ^ 



\ 



Fold-out 
Placeholder 



/ 



This fold-out is being digitized, and will be ir 

future date. 



}y 



End of Jit 



1. 3» 




lU^JD-POWEE IRON CRANE. 447 

tares of the crane, the experience of practical men is seen. 
Some may think this shaft question one of minor importance. 
I know it's a simple thing, and one to which, by manj' design- 
ers, no attention is paid. A handle that requires to be changed 
from one shaft to another necessarily requires a very easy fit. 
Where the square part of shaft is so short as with many cranes, 
tlie handles can readily work off without its being noticed. 
There are many besides the writer who could testify to this 
often having occurred, and to serious accidents caused thereby 
that would have been avoided had there been more length of 
handle shaft. The increased length not only gives a better 
chance to notice any working-off of handles, but also provides 
more room to guard against errors upon the part of thoughtless 
foundry helpers. 

The principle involved in the plan of carriage here shown is 
one which the reader will remember is favorably commented 
upon, p. 442. A point which much simplifies the crane's frame 
construction is having but one girder for the mast. This is 
best seen in end elevation of the crane. 

One of the most modern features of this crane is the use of 
wire rope for the sustaining cord. Wire rope would, no doubt, 
in years to come be the most popular sustaining cord used, were 
it not because its durability demands much larger drums and 
sheaves than chains. 

John A. Roebling & Sons, Trenton, N.J., manufacturers 
of wire ropes, and who are taken as authority' upon stx*ength of 
wire ropes, in one of their tables, call for the drum and sheaves 
in crane shown in Fig. 116 for steel wire ropes to be over 3' in 
diameter ; the drum in crane, as shown, being but 25" diameter. 
The use of such large drums and sheaves as table calls for is 
not very practicable in foundry crane construction. 

The Roebling table (p. 393) certainly gives sizes, which, if 
used, will increase the length of time a rope will last, compared 
with the use of smaller sizes. What many would, no doubt, 




Fold-out 
aceholder 



being digitized, and will be inserted at 
future date. 






m 



448 HAND POWER IRON CRANE. 

like is a table that would tell them how small drums or sheaves 
could be used without serious injury. In our foundry we use 
a ^' iron wire rope (hemp centre), on the core-maker crane, 
the drum of which is 8|^" diameter. Roebling's table calls for 
a drum for this sized rope to be 18" diameter. The rope coils 
around the drum very readily ; and, although in use six months, 
there is no apparent injury done to it yet. Before putting this 
rope upon the crane, it was passed over a charcoal fire, and 
heated about as hot as the hand could bear. While hot, it was 
soaked in a pan of oil ; then, after being put up, the rope 
was kept well coated with a mixture of oil and black lead. 
Throughout our works, there are several wire-rope cranes ; 
and all of the ropes are kept well coated with oil and lead. 
There is no question but that wire ropes are much benefited by 
being kept well lubricated, and that when so attended to small 
drums or sheaves may with much success be used. 

For the area, there is nothing to equal the strength of a steel 
rope. In the case of the crane shown in Fig. 141, the rope, 
by Roebling's table, would only have a safe lifting capacity of 
about five tons. To break the rope, a load of about twenty 
tons would be required : therefore a load of twelve tons could 
be occasionally hoisted without breaking the rope. 

In using wire ropes for foundry cranes, the lower blocks 
should be made heavy enough to hold the rope straight, and 
pull themselves down. This evil overcome, the wire rope 
makes an excellent sustaining cord, and has points which rec- 
ommend its use instead of chains or hemp ropes. The use of 
chains often causes more or less jerking ; and they are treacher- 
ous, as they break without giving any warning. 

Hemp ropes are objectionable on account of their short life 
and their clumsiness. If daily used, they are not worth much 
at the end of a year. The heat and dampness of a foundry 
soon destroy them. 

Wire ropes will hoist steadily, are neat and light, and will 



I 



HAND-POWER IRON CRANE. 



449 



often give warning before they break. About the only objec- 
tion to their use is their requiring such large drums and sheaves 
to insure their longevity. Nevertheless, there is one thing with 
cranes in their favoi- : that is the slow speed with which the 
rope is wound around sheaves and drums, thereby practically 
permitting the use of smaller sheaves and drums than where the 
ropes run with a velocity such as is obtained with ropes used 
for driving machinery, etc. 



JOHN A. ROEBLING'S SONS CO.'S STANDARD HOISTING- 
ROPES, WITH NINETEEN WIRES TO THE STRAND. 





Circumfer- 






Breaking 


Proper 
working 


Circumfer- 
ence of 


Minimum 
size of 


Trade 


ence In 


Diameter. 


strain in 
tons of 
2000 lbs. 


load in 


Hemp Hope 


drum or 


No. 


inches. 






tons of 


of equal 


sheave in 












2000 lbs. 


strength. 


feet. 






Cast 




Cast 




Cast 


Cast 




Cast 




Cast 




Iron. 


Steel. 


Iron. 


Steel. 


Iron. 


Steel. 


'^'■°"- Steel. 


Iron. 


Steel. 


Iron. 


Steel. 


1 


61 


61 


2\ 


2\ 


74 


1.30 


15 i 26 


m 


_ 


8 


9 


2 


6 


6 


2 


2 


65 


100 


13 21 


14i 


- 


7 


8 


3 


5i 


•H 


If 


If 


54 


78 


11 


17 


13 


15f 


6^ 


7i 


4 


5 


5 


11 


If 


44 


64 


9 


13 


12 


14i 


5 


6 


5 


41 


4t 


n 


H 


39 


55 


8 


11 


Hi 


13i 


4f 


5i 


5i 


4i 


- 


1? 


- 


33 


- 


6^ 


- 


lOi 


- 


4A 


- 


6 


4 


4 


u 


U 


27 


39 


5i 


8 


Oi 


Hi 


4 


5 


7 


3i 


3i 


1^ 


H 


20 


.30 


4 


6 


8 


10 


3' 


4i 


8 


3i 


3i 


1 


1 


16 


24 


3 


5 


7 


9i 


3 


4 


9 


2f 


2f 


I 


1 

8 


IH 


20 


2i 


4 


6 


8 


2f 


3f 


10 


2i 


2\ 


3 

4 


f 


8.64 


13 


If 


3 


5 


6^ 


2h 


H 


10-i 


2 


2 


■» 


» 


5.13 


9 


H 


2 


4A 


5-i 


2 


3 


lOi 


n 


n 


"Iff 


A 


4.27 


6i 


3 
■t 


1-^ 


4 


4f 


If 


2f 


lOf 


H 


n 


i 


X 
2 


3.48 


5i 


J. 
2 


1 


3i 


4^ 


u 


2 



ROEBLING S NOTES ON THE USES OF WIRE ROPE. 

Two kinds of wire rope are manufactured. The most pliable variety 
contains nineteen wires in the strand, and is generally used for hoisting 



450 ROEBLING'S NOTES. 

and running rope. The ropes with twelve wires, and seven wires in the 
strand, are stiffer, and are better adapted for standing-rope, guys, and 
rigging. Ropes are made up to 3" in diameter, both of iron and steel, 
upon special application. 

For safe working-load allow one-fifth to one-seventh of the ultimate 
strength, according to speed, so as to get good wear from the rope. 
When substituting wire rope for hemp rope, it is good economy to allow 
for the former the same weight per foot which experience has approved 
for the latter. 

Wire rope is as pliable as new hemp rope of the same strength: the 
former will therefore run over the same sized sheaves and pulleys as the 
latter. But the greater the diameter of the sheaves, pulleys, or drams, 
the longer wire rope will last. In the construction of machinery for wire 
rope, it will be found good economy to make the drums and sheaves as 
large as possible. The minimum size of drum is given in a column in 
the table. 

Experience has demonstrated that the wear increases with the speed. 
It is therefore better to increase the load than the speed. 

Wire rope is manufactured either with a wire or a hemp centre. The 
latter is more pliable than the former, and will wear better where there 
is short bending. 

Steel ropes are, to a certain extent, taking the place of iron ropes, 
where it is a special object to combine lightness with strength. 

But in substituting a steel rope for an iron running rope, the object in 
view should be to gain an increased wear from the rope rather than to 
reduce the size. 

Wire rope must not be coiled or uncoiled like hemp rope. All untwist- 
ing or kinking must be avoided. 

To preserve wire rope, apply raw linseed oil with a piece of sheepskin, 
wool inside, or mix the oil with equal parts of Spanish-brown or lamp« 
black. 



HAND-l'OWEJi WOODEN CKANES. 451 



HAND-POWER WOODEN CRANES.i 

Although iron is the modern material for crane frames, 
wood will, no doubt, continue to be used some. The fact that 
timber is obtainable in almost any section, that it is cheap in 
first cost, and that local skill is easily available to design and 
frame it, are points which will command attention, and keep 
wood from falling into disuse. The timber chiefly used for 
cranes is pine, maple, and oak. There are probably more pine 
cranes than all the others combined. The species of pine gen- 
erally used is the 3'ellow or red pine. The red Canadian pine, 
found from the Pacific to Canada, is the yellow pine of Nova 
Scotia and Canada. The timber is much esteemed for its 
strength and durability, and is used greatly for ship-masts, 
etc. The pitch pine of Carolina and Georgia is noted for its 
strength and durabilit}', in which qualities it surpasses others 
of its class. ]Ma[jle is chiefl}' found in North America. For 
strength, it is superior to pine, and by some authors is placed 
ahead of oak. Maple being a sweet wood is apt to "• doze ; " 
but if in good shape when framed, and given a coat of paint, 
it will remain sound much longer than were it not thus treated. 
Oak, like pine and maple, has several species, and for its 
strength and durability is greatly prized. It is especially 
adapted for exposure to the weather in a damp climate. Its 
species are found in almost all parts of the country. Live 
oak is generally considered the liest. It grows on the coasts of 
the Gulf of Mexico, and as far north as Virginia. 

' While from now (1901) 011 few wooden cranes may be built, the treatment 
ajcorded thein will ia many eases prove as valuable for iron coustructiou as for 
wood. 



452 



HAND POWER WOODEN CRANES. 



The timber used for cranes is generally regulated more I)}' 
what can be readily procured, and in the best shape, than 
from choice or preference of kinds. The following table, shovv- 
nig the transverse strength of woods, is deduced from United 
States Ordnance Department experiments, conducted by Hodg- 
kinsons, Fairbairn, Kirkaldy, and Haswell ; power reduced to 
uniform measure of one inch square, and one foot in length; 
weight suspended from one end as illustrated by Fig. 142. 



Breaking weight. 

Ash 168 lbs. 

" English. ... 160 " 

*• Canada .... 120 " 

Beech 130 " 

" white .... 112 " 

Birch $160 " 

} 115 " 

Cedar, white . . . 160 *' 

Elm 125 " 

" Canada, red . . 170 " 

Maple 202 " 



Oak, white . 
" live . . 
" red, black 
" African 

" English 

'* Canada 
Pine, white . 
" pitch . 
" yellow . 
" Georgia 



In the construction of foundry cranes, the strains timber is 



Breaking weight. 
150 lbs, 
160 " 
135 " 
207 " 
105 " 
157 " 
146 " 
125 " 
137 " 
130 " 
200 " 





Fig. 142. 



Fig. 143. 



subjected to are chiefly transverse strains. The transverse 
strength of a timber is that which it would stand were it laid 
horizontally, being supported at one or both ends, and loaded 
until it broke, as illustrated by Figs. 142 and 143. 

It is often remarkable how strength and lightness can ba 



HAND-POWER WOODEN CRANES. 



45.3 



combined by the judicious use of material in the making of 
tools, whether cranes or any other kind of machinery. 

The form given to timber, and the way it is framed, have 
much to do with its relative strength, as ^ 

will be seen by the following example 
for Figs. 144 and 145. To ascertain 
the relative sectional strength of timber, 
multiply the square of the depth by the 



Fig. 144. thickness. 



2" X 8" 

Fig. 145. 



EXAMPLE. 



Fig. 144. 



Square of depth 16 

Thickness 4 

Relative strength 64 



Fig. 145. 



Square of depth 64 

Thickness 2 

Relative strength 128 



In the sections, Figs. 144 and 145, we liave the same area, 
or number of square inches; but by having the area iti the 
oblong or rectangular shape, as per Fig. 145, we have a 
tinilxM' rh:it will stand double the load that such a one as Fig. 
1-14 would, were both to have the loud a])j)]ied on tlieir respec- 
tive surfaces, //and A'; the timbers to be either suj)i)orted at 
one end, as per Fig. 142, or supported at both ends, as per 
Fig. 143, and same length between, or from their support. 
There are many cranes whose frames would have been much 
stronger had the above principles been more strictly adhered to 
in construction. The following gives the fundamental princi- 
ples for finding the transverse strength of beams : — 



'' Transverse strength of a beam is inversely as its length, and 
directly as its breadth and square of its depth, and, if cylin- 
drical, as the cube of its diameter. That is, if a beam 6' long, 
2" broad, and 4" deep can carry 2,000 lbs., another beam of 



454: HAND-POWER WOODEN CRANES. 

the same material, 12' long, 2" broad, and 4" deep, will only 
carry 1,000 lbs., being inversely as its length. Again, if a 
beam C long, 2" broad, and 4" deep can support a weight of 
2,000 lbs., another beam of the same material 6' long, 4" broad, 
and 4" deep will support double that weight, being directly as 
its breadth ; but a beam of that material 6' long, 2" broad, 
and S" deep will sustain a weight of 8,000 lbs., being as the 
square of its depth." — Templetok. 

" When one end is fixed and the other projecting, strength is 
inversely as the distance of the weight from the section acted 
upon ; and stress upon any section is directly as the distance 
of weight from that section. 

" Wlien both ends are supported only, the strength is four 
times greater for an equal length, when the weight is applied 
in middle between supports, then if one end only is fixed. 

" When both ends are fixed, the strength is six times greater 
for an equal length, when the weight is applied in the middle, 
than if only one end is fixed. 

" Beams of wood, when laid with their annular layers vertical, 
are stronger than when they are laid horizontally, in the pro- 
portion of eight to seven. 

"The lower end of a tree will furnish the best timber." — 
Haswell. 

Accompanying this chapter, two wooden framed cranes are 
shown, which will not only give ideas in framing, but present 
valuable points in constructing jib-cranes for foundry use. 

The twentj'-five-ton crane (Fig. 146), sliown on ]i. 455, is 
"triple-geared," A" being the "first motion," B the second, 
and P the third. The shaft of pinion, K, is such as will slide 
out, thereby disengaging the first motion whenever it is desir- 
able to operate the crane by its second or fastest motion. The 
" third motion " is not operated by crank. For some it might 



HAND-rOWKR WOODEN CRANES. 



4r> 



be well to say that the third motion is added for the purpose 
of increasing the power. Some may think it odd that the 
pitches were not more proportioned, the first and second motion 
wheels being both of same pitch. This was, no doubt, caused 




Fig. 146. 



through the desire to make one pattern answer. One thing in 
its favor is, that the pitch is larger than the first motion actually 
requires. Were the first motion 1:^" pitch, it would have been 
strong enough. When one comes to consider that the pattern 



450 HAND-rOWER WOODEN CRANES. 

was drawn \^'\ so as to make the " second motion " gears 4^" 
face, whereas the first motion is 3" face, he will find that the 
proportion of the second motion is not far out of the way. 
Did one desire to substitute a If" pitch for the 1^" pitch, in 
" second motion," the number of gear teeth would be 74, while 
the pinion would require 13 teeth. The link of the rack-chain 
shown with this crane is made of wrought-iron. At i^ is a ^" 
flat iron bent around solid links f " in diameter ; the flat link 
being held by a rivet through its centre. 

One of the valuable and striking features of this crane is 
tlie manner in which the jib is braced. It is a good plan, and 
one worthy of notice. The under piece, H, greatly strengthens 
the jib ; and by its use and the tie rods E E, one of which is 
upon each side of the crane, the necessity of braces D and H, 
as shown in the ten-ton crane (shown on p. 457), is obviated. 

The question of bracing up the jib of a crane is an important 
one, not merely on account of giving the jib proper support, 
but to make the height of hoist capable of being operated as 
far as possible. Crane carriages and braces are two things 
that are often so blunderingly designed as to shut off much 
of what should be the crane's working floor area. 

The idea that should be prevalent in bracing jibs of cranes 
is to have, as far as possible, all the area for height of hoist 
one can. Some cranes are braced in such a way that they 
destroy fully one-third of what should be good moulding-floor 
area, simply on account of the braces allowing so little room 
for height of hoist in towards the crane's centre. 

In the ten-ton crane shown on p. 455, the main brace Y, 
where it connects with the jib, is, as seen, 9' 4" back from the 
jib's end. The brace R coming acutely to it, as shown, allows 
of the crane's hoisting near the full height up to the jib for 
fully one-half the jib's length. This crane is one used in the 
old part of our foundry. As this portion is not very high, 
we aie allowed but about IC from the floor level up to the 



HAND-POWER WOODKN CRANES. 



457 




under side of the jib for lioist ; so that the jib, being braced as 
ihown, allows about all the available height of hoist that it is 



■1.j8 HAND-POWER WOODEN CRANES 

WMisisteut to expect in wliat is termed a " low crane." Were 
the crane as high as the twenty-five-ton crane shown on p 
455, we would of course, by the style of bracing shown on 
p. 457, increase the jib's length for height in hoisting. 

Another feature of the bracing in the ten-ton crane worthy 
of notice is the mode by which the joints of the braces are 
ironed. As a general thing, braces are held in place by means 
of cast-iron "cheek-pieces," which are not only cumbersome 
and clumsy-looking, but much more costly to produce than the 
wrought-iron brackets here used. As i-egards the durability of 
this style of fastenings, it can be said that they have stood the 
lifting of heavy loads over ten years, and at this writing the 
joints appear as firm as the day they were put together. 

During my life's experience with using cranes, I have yet to 
see the crane that can always be revolved with the same ease 
in all directions. The powerful leverage effect which weights 
hung from jibs have upon buildings, more or less causes the 
masts of cranes to be out of plumb, and is often such as to 
cause fears of the building's being pulled over. I have worked 
in shops where it was often a necessity to hold the crane from 
swinging by means of ropes ; and also have worked in shops 
where almost every move of the crane would cause some of its 
bricks to fall down. Of course such operations only show that 
the shop was not strong enough for the leverage of the crane. 
This is a point too often neglected or not provided for in 
building foundries intended for crane or heavy work. Such 
shops cannot be built too strong. I doubt if there is a shop in 
the country but moves more or less every time a jib crane is 
rotated. Often by the moving of an unusually heavy weight 
a shop will be strained so as to receive a " permanent set," and 
thus cause the crane to be badly out of plumb. One greai 
trouble with almost all cranes is the lack of some arrangement 
whereby cranes, when they receive an out-of -plumb " perma- 
nent set," could be expeditiously adjusted. In some shops 



HAND-POWEll WOODEN CRANES. 459 

they adjust by hangiug weights from the crane's jib. This, vnx 
into rule form, would read: "To adjust a crane, move the 
hdlding." A thing all right enough, provided the building 
can be given a ' ' permanent set ' ' to stay in about the same 
position. 

The manner in which top gudgeons are generally incased in 
cranes causes them to become moi'e or less bound when cranes 
get out of plumb. To overcome the evils arising from such 
effects, we use, as seen at T, a round cap which the gudgeon 
can readily accommodate to any incline to which the out-of 
plumb crane may oscillate it. The cap T, as seen, covers the 
gudgeon so as to keep it free of the dust which collects upon 
beam, etc. In this cap are two small oil-holes for the purpose 
of keeping the gudgeon well lubricated, a thing which must be 
attended to before one need expect to have a crane revolve 
easily. 

On p. 448 the question of cranes, when loaded, getting the 
control of the operators, was touched upon. That such things 
have often happened, most users of cranes can testify. In 
some cranes a ratchet (shown, old style, p. 457) is used. This 
is only of service while the hoisting is being done. Should the 
crane through any cause "get away," it cannot be stopped 
until all the " mischief is done." 

Shown by plan and side views is the sketch of a brake and 
ratchet wheel which are attached to the crane as shown. This 
brake is formed of two parts, best seen in plan view. The 
outer part F, which contains the internal ratchet, is loose upon 
the shaft. The inner part, which contains the springs and the 
ratchet pawls seen at YY, is fastened by set screws or keyed 
to the shaft. Supposing the crane to be hoisting, the direction 
W would take would be that shown by the arrow. The pawls 
yy turning the reverse way of the ratchet notches are sprung 
out by the springs in W, as they pass them by. Now, sJKMild 
the crane through any cause attempt to " get away," W would 



4<»0 HAND-T'OWER AVOODEN CRANES. 

then, of course, turn the opposite way to the arrow directions, 
and in doing so the pawls would catch the notches ; and as the 
ratchet part V is held by the brake straps G and X, the crane 
cannot, of course, run down. Should it be desirous to lower 
hy means of the brake, all that is required is to operate the 
brake wheel A , seen in side elevation of the crane. The 
mechanism of this little machine rightly entitles it to the des- 
ignation of a safety ratchet-brake. 

The racking device of this crane is one worthy of notice, 
as it is no doubt the best that could be adopted for carriages 
that are pulled by two chains. The trouble that pulling car- 
riages with two chains generall}' causes having on p. 445 been 
commented upon, the subject will not be here discussed. This 
caiTiage is pulled by having a chain composed of malleable- 
iron links (one of which is seen at Fig. 148) passed over the 
sheaves MM, and bolted to the wrought-iron bar K, seen in 
the plan of carriage. These links being all of the same pitch, 
and the sheaves M3f, over which the chain works, being very 
accurate in pitch also, the carriage must necessarily pull very 
sqnare, and without causing much friction upon the sides of 
the track. The track, as will be seen, is formed by railroad- 
rails. The way tracks are generally made is by simply using 
Hat bars. The using of the rails shown not only makes a rigid 
track, but also helps to strengthen the jib, and presents very 
little friction surface for the carriage- wheel rims to work upon. 
Altogether this original idea is one that works well and is worth 
noticing. 

Shown by the ten-ton crane, the distance of the shaft upon 
which the crane handles are seen is 3' above the floor-level ; 
this is about the right height to place shafts for convenient 
working, or operating of the crane's handles. While the above 
is the most convenient height for shafts, the}' can be worked 
higher or lower ; the limit to their convergency from the above 
height should not exceed 8" below or above the 3'. 



HAND-POWER WOODEN CRANES. 461 

The gears in all of these cranes show the arms and rims 
strong!}' constructed. This is something too often neglected. 
I have yet to see any gear's teeth fractured from ^'- pure 
strains," but many arms and rims have I seen break from the 
same. Many arms and rims have been known to break in 
wheels that had their teeth worn half away. A thing that 
should be kept in mind is. that all wheels have more or less 
strains that will exist in their rims and arms as long as the 
wheel remains whole. It is practically impossible to cast wheels 
that will be entirely free of strains. Wheels may run for years 
and all at once break under comparatively a light load. Could 
the shrinkage (or. properly, contraction^) strains be annulled in 
castings, they would then often bear double the working-load. 
The teeth of a wheel are more free from contraction strains 
than any other portion of a wheel that can be mentioned. Did 
the strains exist in the teeth, that is, in the arms and rims of the 
wheels, it is safe to say the teeth would not stand to be worked 
down to as thin a body as many can be found so worn. 



' The two terms "shrinkage" and "contraction," properly defined for foundry 
practice, should apply "shrinkage" to action of metal when in a liquid state; "con- 
traction," to the action of metal after becoming solidified. 



'l:«j'i POST CKANKS. 



POST-CRANES. 

Posts in a moulding-room will by almost all moulders ba 
conceded as being more or less of a nuisance. If it were only 
the floor area which posts occupy that was hampered or lost, 
posts would not be so objectionable. To describe why posts 
are so undesirable, is not the purpose of this article. As posts 
are often a necessity, the desire is simply to set forth ideas 
showing how i)osts may, in some cases, be utilized for crane 
purposes, and much moulding-floor area thereby saved. 

If it is necessary for a post to be " stuck up " in a moulding- 
room, and in its localit}" a crane is desired, there is decidedly a 
great gain if the post can be made to answer both purposes. 
There are many places where a crane is erected in close prox- 
imity to a post which could as well as not have been arranged 
so as to answer the purpose of the crane's mast, and thereby 
have given a "clear swinging crane," and an unbroken radius 
of moulding-room area. The non-utilizing of posts is some- 
thing that would not have often occurred, were the designers 
informed as to ideas such as this article is intended to illustrate 
and set forth. 

About all the difference there need be-in construction between 
post and pivot cranes is the matter of revolving. For cranes 
under ten tons' capacity, the writer sees no reason why they 
could not be constructed so as to revolve as easily as pivot- 
swung cranes. For the construction of post-cranes up to three 
tons' capacity, there is probably nothing used that presents a 
more simple and lietter working design than that illustrated on 
the revolving principle set forth in the post-crane shown. (The 



POST-CRANES. ' 463 

word "capacity," wherever used with reference to cranes, 
means the amount of weight a crane can safely carr}-, and not, 
as many moulders think, that which is about sufficient to break 
the crane down.; 

At first glance, one sees hardly any thing to distinguish the 
crane from an ordinary jib-crane, the principle of hoisting and 
racking being practically the same. The difference is mainly 
confined to the jaws F and B, they being constructed so as to 
allow the crane to revolve around a stationary column or })ost. 
A plan for top jaws is shown by Figs. 150 and 15-i. These 
are made so that most of the crane's weight comes upon anti- 
friction rollers held by them. As shown at X and above F, 
tliese points being where the greatest friction is generated, the 
rollers^ of course, greatly prevent its being created. In fact, if 
the rollers are projected sufficiently to have the crane's weight 
come upon them, the amount of frictioii there generated would 
be hardly worth taking notice of. The greatest point of friction 
in this crane is upon the collar ^1. Some might think the dead 
surfaces there in contact would bo sufficient to require a dozen 
men to revoh'c the crane when heavily loaded. As this crane 
was one designed by the " Cuyahoga Works," and daily seen 
used by the author in this foundry, lie can say that if the 
collar A is kept well lubricated, the crane will swing around 
about as easily as a pivot-crane of like capacity. Should one 
wish to prevent ill! tlie friction possible, he could be much aided 
by making the £Ui)porting collar A upon tlie principle set forth 
in Figs. \'yl and 153. The round balls or conical rollers shown 
are by no means any thing original : they have in other things 
for years back been used as friction preventives, and there is 
no reason why the principle cannot lie turned to a good account 
in constructing post-cranes. In fact, for instance in the post- 
crane shown, were these balls or conical rollers used at the 
flange A in concert with the rollers X and F, the crane would 
no doubt far surpass pivot-cranes as far as easy swinging is 
concerned. 



4(U 



POST-CRANES. 



The braces and jib of the crane as shown are constructed of 
wrought-iron bars, l^"x6". If it were desired to construct 
them of wood, for a crane of about like capacity, it could be 




Fig. 150,„_,^^'^- ^^' 




Fig. 149. 

done by constructing the jaws B and F wide enough to take a 
jib 3"xl0", and braces 3"x8", and having the sides of the 



FOST-CRANES. 4()5 

top jaw DD made from 6" to 8" longer, so as to give more 
support to the jib. 

It will be noticed that the top jaw (Fig. 150) is made so that 
it can be placed after a post has been set up. After the jaw is 
set upon the collar vl, the piece H is placed in, and a bolt put 
through the two. The jaw then answers the same purpose as 
if it were one solid casting, as per plan seen in Fig. 154. The 
]}\w.n Fig. 154 is, of course the strongest, and often the best to 
adopt where circumstances will permit. 

The constructing of a post-crane does not always necessitate 
the erecting of a post especially for that purpose. It may be 
that one would like to use some post that is standing. With a 
jaw, as per Fig. 150, it can be utilized without the post being 
taken down. Should the post require to have a collar to sup- 
port the top jaw. ideas ai-e illustrated in Fig. 155, showing how 
a casting made in halves could be bolted on to a square or 
round wooden or iron column. 

The diameter or square of a post or column may not be 
entirely regulated by the capacity of crane desired. The 
weight a post will have to support may often call for a much 
stronger one than the capacity of the crane would require. 
When posts are erected for crane purposes, it is a good plan to 
raise the beams by moans of jack-screws and timbers ; so that 
when the post is set up the building's load ma\- be let down so 
as to rest solidly upon it. This not only insures the post sup- 
]K)rting its intended load, but it causes the top of the post to 
be more firmly held when the crane is loaded. 

It is, of course, understood that the above does not mean 
that posts arc to be erected for the special purpose of making 
a crane : it is only where a post is required to support a build- 
ing, and in the same locality a crane is desired, are the}" advo- 
cated. The building of post-cranes is not advised except 
under circumstances which will not permit the use of a clear- 
swinging pivot-crane. 



ir.G POST-CRANES. 

A peculiar feature of this crane, which -will no doubt attract 
the eye of mauj', is that of the racking arrangement. The 
movement of the carriage is done by means of an endless 
'' racking-chain " passing over two 6" loose sheaves at K; from 
thence over the sheave E. This sheave, as shown in Fig. 156, is 
chucked into the pinion H, and both the pinion and sheave are 
loose upon the shaft D. As this sheave and pinion is made to 
revolve by means of the racking-chain, the spur-wheel S which 
is keyed on to the shaft N revolves the truck-wheels TFTF, 
thereb}- moving the carriage. Cast on to the wheels TFWare 
pinions which mash into the rack seen upon the side elevation 
of the crane. This rack is used for the purpose of insuring 
the carriage travelling square when heavily loaded. While this 
form of a racking device is quite a novelt}' and a success, as 
far as working is concerned, in point of cheapness it cannot be 
said to have much advantage over the st^'le used in the twenty- 
five-ton jib or travelling crane shown (pp. 455, 469). From this 
it must not be inferred that the style shown in post-crane would 
work well upon the ten or twenty-five ton cranes shown. For 
loads over three tons, such a style of carriage should give place 
to those shown with the heavier cranes. 

For holding up the lower jaw F, bolts TT, as shown, are 
used. The construction of this lower jaw is simplified by 
making the cheek-pieces R so as to be secured to F by means 
of set screws. A plan view of the lower jaw F is seen in 
Fig. 151. The width between the cheek-pieces R in con- 
structing a crane will be regulated by the length of drum 
required. For the same number of feet in height of hoist, the 
length of a drum can be much less where wire ropes are used 
instead of a chain for the sustaining cord. This, of course, 
means that in both cases the same diameter of barrel is used. 
For wire rope it is best to use the barrels as large as practica- 
ble, and they should be larger in diameter for wire than chain 
sustaining-cords. As this crane is only intended for loads up 



POST-CRANES. 407 

to oue ciud a half tous, it is ])ut single-geared. To construct 
one for loads ranging from two to five tons or upwards, it would 
require that the crane be double-geared, a thing which can be 
applied to post-cranes as well as pivot swinging-cranes. 

The construction of the lower jaw in the crane shown is such 
as to bring the lower end of the braces up fully five feet clear 
of the floor. This will allow one's moulding up within about 
two feet of the crane's post ; and also give good height in hoist 
when working under the braces. The frame-work of the crane 
shown is strong enough to carry a load of three tons, and is, 
as all frames of cranes should be, stronger than the sustaining- 
cord. 



468 TRAVELLING-CRANES. 



TRAVELLING-CRANES. 

The hand travelling-crane shown on p. 469 is one which the 
author has designed to illustrate principles and ideas which he 
thinks would work well in hand-travellers for foundry use.' 

The capacity of the crane is intended to be ten tons. The 
arrangement of the hoisting and racking of the crane is in 
principle similar to those used in jib-cranes. 

For moving the traveller upon its longitudmal track, a shaft 
connected to the two wheels SS is operated by the bevel- wheel 
X and the pinion F, as shown. 

Moving "hand-travellers" lengthwise in a shop, is usually 
a troublesome perforfnance to arrange ; so much so that I 
doubt if in this particular point a ten-ton "hand-traveller" 
can be made a success. I do not call a traveller a success that 
requires an army of men to move it when heavily loaded, nor 
are they a success when they cannot be made to travel much 
faster than a snail. 

While this crane is presented for ten tons capacity, it should 
be understood that such loads should be handled only occa- 
sionally. If it is desired to handle daily from six to ten tons, 
I would advise the traveller be operated by other than hand- 
power. In reality I do not believe " hand-travellers" can be 
made to move properly for foundiy use with much more than 
five-ton loads. 

In designing the gearing for this crane, I thought it best 
to make it " triple-raotioned," in order to save the necessity of 
employing six or seven men to climb up into the pendant to do 
the hoisting for heavy loads, which would be the case if the 

" Ideas presented here for baud cranes are also applicable in many cases to power 
travelling-cranes. 



TRAVELLING-CKANES. 



469 



gearing were only '' doul)le-moiioned." With the gearing as 
shown, two men should '^ nitmage the crane." For heavy 
loads they would use the trii)led or slowest speed shaft R. For 




I 






Fig. 157. 

lighter loads the handles can be used upon either of the other 
two shafts sliOAvu ; and thus they can hoist with increased 



470 TRAVELLING-CRANES. 

speed. In lowering loads the crane can be manipulated by the 
brake shown, if desired. The brake intended for use is that 
described as a " safety brake," and is shown on p. 457. 

The racking of the carriage, and moving of the traveller 
lengthwise upon its longitudinal track, are so arranged that one 
shaft B answers for both purposes. This is best seen in the 
"plan of bridge: " the sheave A there seen is keyed on the 
shaft B, while the sheave K is loose. Into the end of the shaft 
at H^ there is screwed a set-screw for the purpose of keeping 
the sheave K in its proper place. Instead of the set-screw, 
there could be a collar used by having the shaft a little longer. 
The pinion i^ is a part of the sheave /f, and thus will revolve 
whenever the sheave K is rotated. 

The arrangement of the sheaves A and K is such that the 
hand racking-chain passes down each side of the pendant so as 
to be out of the way of the handles. The chains may be run 
through the platform to within a few feet of the ^aor, as seen 
a.t EE in the end view. The advantage of this v'iU be that 
the sheaves A and K can be worked by help below as well as 
above. The sheave /iT, being the one that operates the moving 
of the traveller, should be a regular chain-sheave in order to 
give the chain as good a purchase as possible. Of course 
there would be no objection to sheave A, which operates the 
carriage, being also a chain-sheave. 

For assistance in climbing into the pendant, there could be 
a ladder arranged so as to slide up and down one side of the 
pendant, and a counter-balance weight used for holding it up 
in concert with a rope for pulling it down. Some use a rope- 
ladder ; which will, after the men have climbed up into the 
pendant, be pulled out of the way. Where a traveller is kept 
in almost constant use, a poorer arrangement for getting up 
into the pendant can be more practically used, than where the 
crane would be ]:)ut occasionally used ; for in the former case 
the men would only require to climb up three or four timoa 



TRAVELLING-CRANES. 471 

during the day, whereas in the latter case they might have ta 
climb very often. 

The wheels of the traveller S'S\ SS, have their axles run in 
ficti-friction rollers, as seen at M, in the "end view of the 
rridge-trucks," 

The shaft W, to which the bevel-gear X is keyed, rotates 
the two wheels S' >S'. The shaft being coupled, as seen, allows 
of its being easily attached to the axles of the wheels. Coup- 
ling the wheels to one shaft makes their revolutions positively 
alike, and thereby aids the crane to travel squarely upon its 
longitudinal track ; a very essential element in making a trav- 
eller a success. 

The wheels S' S\ SS, are grooved cast-iron ones. Some in 
constructing wheels for use in very heavy travelling-cranes 
shrink on a steel or wrought-irou band for forming the groove 
part of the wheel, similar to that shown in Fig. 158. The 
reason for doing this is so as to make the feather or rim of 
the groove strong enough to resist any side-pressure that may 
be brought to bear upon the groove's rim through any uneven 
travelling of the crane. In regard to the expansion and con- 
traction of a traveller, it might be thought it would be too 
great to permit the use of groove-wheels. It is found, how- 
ever, that in out-of-door structures such as bridges, etc., the 
greatest difference winter and summer, the two extremes in the 
temperature, can cause in the length of one hundred feet, is less 
than I". As fifty feet is near the greatest span yet given 
'• travelling-cranes," we see then from the above that f" upon 
eacli side is the most we would have to allow for. Now, this is 
haidly worth noticing, when we consider that grooved wheels 
are not requned to be the exact size of the rails upon which 
they travel. Single flanged wheels, similar to car-wheels, are 
seldom used for "travelling-cranes," as they are not so good 
as grooA^ed wheels for aiding the crane to travel squarely. 

As the hoisting-chain, where it is attached to the drum and 



472 TRAVELLING-CRANES. 

passes over the sheaves, is not shown, it might be well to state 
that the chain in leaving the dnnn passes np over the sheave i/, 
from thence to the sheave F', then down and up through the 
lower bloel\s as shown to the sheave E\ and from thence to 
the eye-bolt T, where the chain is held. 

The sheaves P' and X' shown are those over which the 
carriage racking-chains work. 

The crank-handles seen in the end elevation of pendant are 
upon the "■ second motion " shaft ; R being the " first motion," 
and L' the " third motion." 

A question often asked is : Which is the best for foundr}' 
use, a "travelling" or "jib" crane? Some think that trav- 
elling-cranes are all perfection, and in some cases they may be : 
but, like most machines, they have their objectionable as well 
as their commendable points. 

The element most commendable in travellers is their leavmg 
the moulding-floor of a shop clear from central-post obstruc- 
tions ; but whether a " traveller " or a "jib" crane is the most 
expedient to adopt with reference to speed in turning out work, 
will depend upon the class of work to be done, and the form 
of a shop. Take a shop, for instance, that is long, and where 
it is necessary that oven-work metal or castings should be con- 
veyed a distance farther than one jib-crane could reach : the 
traveller then is decidedly the more advantageous ; that is, if it 
moves with desirable speed. Changing from one jib-crane to 
another in moving loads lengthwise of a long shop is very slow 
work. But where work is of such a nature that it may be 
completed upon the area encircled by jib-cranes, then the jib- 
crane has the advantage. It does not follow, that because a 
shop is long, its crane-work can be most expeditiously done with 
travelling-cranes. A traveller might often be convenient for 
delivering the metal and castings ; but the loss of time that 
shops experience where the men often require the use of a crane 
during moulding-hours, caused by having to wait for it to be 



TRAVELLING-CRANES. 473 

brought from some other portion of the shop, might often be so 
serious as to make the bttle advantage gained by the deUvery 
of the metal or castings to be far from making the traveller a 
profitable tool in the end. 

Many think that because a travelling-crane can go from one 
end to the other of a shop, it can do all the crane-work capable 
of being moulded upon the ai'ca over which it travels. This is 
seldom practicable. If a shop is of any size, anct has an ordi- 
nary number of moulders working upon moulds often requiring 
the use of a crane, there should be two travelling-cranes : 
though the work may often be done with one traveller, yet the 
disadvantage and loss to the firm from the necessity' of ' ' wait- 
ing for the crane " may often in the end be much more than 
the saving in expense by purchasing but one ; and not only are 
two travellers necessary to prevent waiting, but are often 
essential in assisting the handling of moulds that require two 
crane-ladles to pour them, etc. * 

Another false idea many have concerning travelling-cranes 
is, that they leave the total area of a shop-floor available for 
crane-work. With man}- travellers, if the area that is lost on 
account of the bridge's trucks, as at L or (?, preventing the 
crane's hook from coming up to the shop's end, were taken into 
consideration, and also the area lost along the side of the shop 
through the operations of the pendant, it would be found that 
not much more of the area could be utilized than if the shop 
was filled with jib-cranes sufficient to utilize its floor-area ; but 
that portion of the shop's ^rea lost through travellers as above 
described, is far from being as valuable as that lost through 
jib-cranes. Having the central porti(m of the nroa of a shop 
all free, is generally of more value than where the sides and 
ends are free, and the central portion '■•cut up " wiLh the masts 
of jib-cranes. 

Some travelling-cranes are so constructed that the hoisting 
and racking gearing are placed so that the operators stand upon 

' In many cases " jib-cranes " placed at bides, coitiers, or end of a shop will malie 
the use of one " traveller " woik lo excellent advantage, and all sufficient. 



4Y-i TRAVEILING-CRANES. 

the top of the traveller ; this is very objectionable for foundry 
use, one reason being they place the operators out of sight and 
proper hearing. A traveller for foundry use should have its 
gearing so as to be manipulated below the crane-bridge ; for 
then the operators are given every chance both to see and to 
hear, as in the crane here shown. 

The bridge of the traveller here shown is a " built-up " one. 
In order to save that labor in the building of medium travellers, 
some use I-beams braced with stay-rods, as seen in Fig. 159. 
Where the span is not too great, and the intended loads are 
below eight tons, the I-beams may often be used without the 
bracing shown in Fig. 159. 

Travelling-cranes should be braced sideways, as well as in 
other directions, on account of the tendency of the bridge to 
spread apart when the crane is moving heavy loads. In bra- 
cing sideways, some persons adopt a S3'stem of stay-rods similar 
to that shown for under-bracing in Fig. 159, but others brace by 
means of wide flanges, etc. For making the crane shown, stiff 
sideways, the plates NN, Fig. 160, are used. If the "span" of 
crane show^n should exceed the length given, then a stronger 
system of bracing would be necessary : this would consist in 
using wider flanges than at NN, Fig. 160, or else bracing with 
stay-rods, etc. 

The "span" of the travelling-crane, as shown, is about 
twenty-five feet. So far as the principle of its working is con- 
cerned, there is nothing to prevent the span being made any 
length desired; but the longer the "span," the deeper and 
stronger in proportion must the bridge be made. 

In any length of span, the distance 22" and 6', shown between 
the dotted hooks and the wall of the shop, would remain the 
same : only the distance between the dotted hooks shown is 
that which would be changed by any alteration in the length 
of the span as here shown. 



GEARING UP CKAiSES. 47,> 



GEARING UP CRANES. 

While in the modern designs of cranes shown in this work, 
plans of gearing are well illustrated, a brief explanation of prin- 
ciples involved will for many be found interesting and useful. 

The principle involved in gearing is the same as that found 
in the lever. The ratio which the orbit that the crank-handle 
travels bears to the space through which the block moves in the 
same time, is the same relation as that which the two ends of a 
common lever bear to each other. The following serves to 
illustrate this : A crank-handle having a radius of 16", in 
making one revolution, would travel through a circumference 
of about 100". If, in turning this handle one revolution, a 
crane's block would move through a space of 1", the leverage 
of the crane would be about 1 to 100. 

The crank-handle is but the long arm of a lever. Its length, 
and the motive force applied to it, determine its power. In a 
crane, foi' instance, having a leverage of 1 to 100, every pound 
exerted upon the crank will correspondingly increase the num- 
ber of hundred pounds which can be hoisted. 

The power an ordinary man exerts upon a crank, when 
hoisting a crane, ranges from fifteen to fifty pounds. For a 
short time he could exceed the fifty pounds ; but for general 
practical use he should not be expected to exert more than 
twenty pounds, the crank travelling with a velocity of 220' per 
minute, which in a crank of IG" radius is nearly equal to 26^ 
revolutions per minute. 

In designing the gearing for a crane, it must he remembered 
that to gain po?ver without a sacrifice in sj^eed can only be done 
))y increasing the motive power by which the crane is operated. 



470 GEAKINCi UP CRANES. 

The " power of a crane" is but the product of force ^ lever 
age, and time. 

The heavier the weight to be hoisted, the longer time will be 
necessary in proportion when tlie .same motive force is used. 
A crane which would require twenty revolutions of its crank to 
hoist the block one foot high has but half the power of a crane 
where forty revolutions of a crank are necessary to hoist the 
block the same height ; this of course means where both cranes 
have the same amount of friction. The loss of power in cranes 
through friction ranges from twenty to fifty per cent. A crane 
may be so badly constructed that where a hundred pounds of 
force are exerted upon its cranks, only fifty pounds are effective 
in hoisting the load, the balance being used in overcoming 
friction. To construct a good working crane, much judgment 
and care should be exercised in the construction of its gear- 
ing and shaf t- bearings < and when used they should be kept well 
lubricated. 

To increase the power or pull of a crane without increasing 
its motive force, can be accomplished by any means which will 
decrease speed in hoisting. Plans which are generally adopted 
to accomplish this end are, first, by means affecting the " gear- 
ing-up " of a crane ; second, by moans of multiplying parts in 
the sustaining cord, as set forth in chapter on page 481. 

Obtaining power or leverage in the crane by gearing is not, 
as some suppose, confined to the multiplication of '■' motions." 
The different number of motions given to cranes are simply 
for the purpose of increasing or diminishing its speed, and for 
convenience in procuring power by the use of the limited space 
allowable in the construction of cranes. A crane, if it were 
practical to use enough space, could be made as powerful with 
one motion as if it had two or three motions. To illus- 
trate this idea, we will suppose the ten-ton crane seen upon p. 
457 constructed so as to have the same power or leverage with 
*' one motion" as it now has with its " two motions." As the 



GEARING Ur cIiaNES. 477 

crane is now geared, the crank when upon its first motion 
travels about 185" for every 1" it raises the blocks. To have 
this same leverage or power of 1 to 185 in the above crane with 
a single motion or speed, tlie wheel upon the drum's shaft would 
require to be made with the If" pitch, having 528 teeth ; and 
the pinion, having eleven teeth, as there shown, would tlien 
require tlie crank to turn tlie same number of revolutions it 
now does in raising the blocks one foot high. Now, to show 
the impracticability" of using a wheel having 528 teeth (leaving 
out tlie question of utility in havmg different speeds), it is only 
necessary to state that a wheel If" pitch, having 528 teeth, 
would be about 24' 6" diameter. 

In gearing a crane, the pitch generally used ranges from 
1" to If". Tlie pitch of a gear is the distance from centre to 
centre of two adjacent teeth measured upon their pitch-line. 

Tlie pitch-line of a wheel is the line tangent to the circum- 
ference of a circle passing through the point of contact of 
the teeth of two wheels when engaged, and is about midway 
between the extremity and root of a tooth. 

The extremit}' of a tooth is the outmost face, and the root 
that which joins or forms the face of the rim of the wheel. 

The class of wheel-gearing most used for cranes is that 
termed "spur-wheels." There are two other kinds of gear- 
ing, — bevel and mitre wheels, which are also sometimes used. 

A s'pur-ioheel is a wheel having its teeth perpendicular to its 
axis. 

A mitre-wheel is a wheel having its teeth at an angle of 45'^ 
with its axis. 

A bevel-wheel is a wheel having its teeth at an angle with its 
axis. 

" To compute the pitch of a wheel. — Divide the circumference 
at the pitch-line by the number of teeth. 

''Example. — A wheel 40" In diameter requires 75 teeth: 
What is its pitch? 3.141G x 40 -j- 75 = 1.6755". 



J:7S GEARING UP CRANES. 

" To compute the diameter of a wheel. — Multiply the uurcber 
of teeth by the pitch, and divide the product by 3.1416. 

'"Example. — Number of teeth in a wheel is 75, and pitch 
i.G755". What is the diameter of it? 

75 X 1.6755 -T- 3.1416 = 40"." 

Haswell. 

Where two gear-wheels engao;e each other and one is smaller 
diau the other, the smaller is called the " pinion," and the 
hirger the "■ wheel When ui contact, the ratio of their revo- 
lutions IS regulated by the number of teeth each contains. 

To find the number of revolutions in a pinion to one of a 
wheel. — Divide the number of teeth in the wheel by those in 
the pinion. With a wheel having 9G teeth, and a pinion with 
16 teeth (96 -r- 16 = 6), we see the pinion makes six revolutiona 
to every one of the wheel. 

In cranes the smallest pitch is used for the " first motion," 
those used upon the last motion being larger. This is done 
because the nearer to the pull of a drum a gear is, the gi'eater 
strain there is upon the teeth of the wheel. 

The strength of teeth, and relative proportion in depth of face 
to pitch of teeth, are well illustrated by the following formulas, 
given by the Walker Manufacturing Company, Cleveland, O. 

"The durability of the teeth of gears, under the same cir- 
cumstances, is nearly in a direct proportion to their breadth, 
and inversely as the pressure. The strength of the teeth of 
gears is directly in proportion to their breadth, as the square 
of their thickness, and inversely as their length. For example, 
if we double the breadth we only double the strength ; but if we 
double the thickness, or in other words double the pitch, keep- 
ing the original length and breadth, we increase the strength 
four times : but as the length of teeth commonlj' increases with 
the pitch, this circumstance must be taken into view ; for if we 



d 



GEARING Ur CRANES. 



170 



double the thickness and length at the same time (as is common 
in practice), we only double the strength, in which case the 
strength is directly as the pitch. 

' ^ The stress on the teeth of gears is as the pressure and 
inversel}- as the velocity. For example, if the pitch lines of 
one pair of wheels move at the rate of 1 ,000 feet per minute, and 
another pair of gears, in every other respect under the same 
circumstances, moves at the rate of 500 feet per minute, the 
stress on the latter is double that on the former. 

"STANDARD FACES FOR SPUR GEARS. 



Pilch. 


Face. 


Pitch. 


Face. 


Pitch. 


Face. 


Pitch. 


Face. 


V 


l\" 


If" 


5i" 


2V 


8i" 


4" 


12" 


f" 


iV 


n" 


5|" 


3" 


9" 


4i" 


13" 


i" 


If" 


2" 


6" 


H" 


9" 


H" 


14" 


i" 


2" 


2\" 


6|" 


3i" 


H" 


43«r 


15" 


1 " 


2^ 


21" 


7" 


3f' 


10" 


5" 


16" 


H" 


3" 


2f" 


7" 


31" 


101" 


sr 


17" 


n" 


Z\" 


2i" 


^" 


3f" 


10^" 


5i" 


18" 


13" 


4" 


2f* 


w 


3|" 


11" 


Sf 


19" 


n" 


W 


2|" 


8" 


3|" 


11" 


6" 


20" 


If" 


5" 















" Gearing. 



1" pitch by 21" face will 
on pitch line, with a 

■ 1\" pitch by 3^' face will 
on pitch line, with a 

• IJ" pitch by ^" face will 

on pitch line, with a 

1|" pitch by 5|" face will 

on pitch line, with a 

• 2" pitch by 6" face will 

on pitch line, with a 



ixturiity. 

transmit 1.40 horse-power at 100' per minute, 

safety of eight. ' 

per minute, 

per minute, 



saiety oi eight. ^ 

transmit 2.52 horse-power at 100' 

safety of eight. ^ 



transmit 3.S4 horse-power at 100' 
safety of eight. ^ 



transmit 5.48 horse-power at 100' per minute, 
safety of eight. i 

transmit 6.83 horse-power at 100' per minute, 
safety of eight. * " — Walker. 



' Ultimate tensile strength, 30,000 pounds per square inch. 



4 so GEARING UP CRANES. 

Before closing this chapter, it may be well to state thnt the 
reason for not introducing " worm-gearing " in any of the chap- 
ters on cranes is, that, for general foundry use, its principle is 
not so well adapted as " spur-gearing " shown. 

The author's opinion of worms vs. spur-gears on cranes 
coincides so closely with that published in " Industrial World," 
that the following extract is quoted : — 

" A worse objection to the use of a worm combination is the 
difficulty of providing for a change of speeds without the use of 
more fixtures, in the form of clutches, and an additional worm, 
than would need to be provided for doing the entire work if the 
spur-gearing were used. With this form of multiplying fixtures, 
the change from fast to slow is made without trouble, b}- the 
simplest kind of an end movement of the hand-shaft, the pawl 
being thrown in for the moment if the change must be made 
while the load is hanging. In fact, for most kinds of lifting 
which, in weights to be moved, fall within this friction limit 
referred to, a single multiplication, from the hand-shaft to the 
chain-drum, by the use of a very large spur-wheel, can generally 
be made which shall very closely meet the ratio of any worm 
likely to be used. In cost of attachment to the crane frame", 
the preference cannot be against the spur-gearing, when the 
need of a change of speed, and room for a proper length of 
chain-drum, are considered." 

As a modifier to the above, the author would say, that, for 
cranes run by other than hand-power, "worm-gearing" may 
often be made to answer all practical requirements, but for 
hand-power cranes he could not approve of their adoption 
tor foundry use. 



MULTIPLYING PARTS IN CRANE CHAINS. 481 



MULTIPLYING PARTS IN CRANE CHAINS. 

In all the cranes shown in this work, the load is to be carried 
upon " two-part " chains or wire rope. The strength of chains 
when used in two parts is given in vol. i. p. 123. 

When the capacity of a crane is to be over that which a two- 
part 1" chain could safely hoist, then it is better to increase 
the number of parts rather than to use heavier chains. 

For large cranes, intended for a load of over twenty tons, 
the blocks can be constructed having from two to four sheaves 
or more. For every sheave a block contains, we have double 
their number in parts of chain by which to cany loads, so that 
with a block having four sheaves we have eight parts or single 
chains to carry the weight. 

In multiplying the [jarts of chain or rope in "blocks," we 
correspondingly increase their lifting capacity. If a tivo-part 
\" chain will carry twenty tons, a four-part 1" chain will carry 
forty tons. The single part of the chain or lope. which mns 
from the upper block in the crane carriage to the crane drum, 
has the strain upon it due to its ratio to the number of chains 
used in the blocks: thus, if the blocks have the four 1" chains 
carry mg forty tons, the one part leading from the drum up to 
toi) block has only one-quarter the weight to carry, which is ten 
tons. 

As the number of parts in chains or ropes in " blocks " mul- 
tiply, so in like proportion does the length to be wound around 
the drum of the crane uicrease. As an example, if in any 
of the cranes shown, their sustaining cord be increased from 
the two parts up to four, six, or eight parts, then their drums 



482 MULTIPLYING PARTS IN CRANE CHAINS. 

would require to be enlarged sufficiently to receive double the 
four, six, or eight times the height of the hoist of the crane. 

The moi-e parts of chain used on any of the cranes shown, 
the slower would be the speed iu hoisting or lowering the crane. 
Should the cranes be geared up, so as to increase the speed, 
then more power would be required to operate them. The mul- 
tiplying of parts in chains or ropes is in one sense but the 
"gearing up " of a crane ; for it decreases speed, and whatever 
decreases speed also diminishes the power required to operate 
it. The relation of speed to power cannot be changed by any 
manipulation iu gearing up: the higher we "gear up," the 
more proportionally we diminish speed and increase power. 



HOOKS. 



48C 



HOOKS. 

"Where cranes exist, hooks are necessary. While in point of 
style they may differ, yet in principle they are all alike. There 
are two modes generally adopted in making hooks ; one is to 
flatten that portion of the iron which forms the hook, while the 
other is to leave the hook round. Figs. 161 and 162 represent 
the round and the flat hook. Wishing to learn the relative 
strength of the two styles, I had several hooks made from one 
1^" round bar of iron, and tested through the courtesy of the 
Otis Steel Works, Cleveland, O., by their " Olsen testing- 
machine." 





Fig. 161. 



Fig. 162. 



The process of testing was not only very interesting, but in- 
structive as well ; for, as the load or weight was applied, the 
stretch, or " opening out," of the hook was measured and was 
M3ticeable to the eye. What surprised the writer was the fact 
that the round hooks required on the average about as much load 
to break them as the flat hooks did. The average breaking 
load obtained was about 13,000 lbs. The round hooks would 
on an average commence to open out when a load of about two 



484 



HOOKS. 



tons was applied : whereas it would take about three tons to 
cause any weakening or opening out of the flat hooks ; and 
when they did commence, the opening out was very slow as 
compared with that which the round hooks showed. 

Some idea of the opening out of the respective styles can 
be formed from the dotted line T R. At Fig. 161 we see 
the round hooks : H shows the form before any load was applied, 
and E shows the hook as it looked when it commenced to break. 
A few of the round hooks opened out much more than E illus- 
trates, before they broke. In Fig. 162, B shows the form of 
the flat hooks before any load was applied, while D represents 
their form when they commenced to break. The breaks seen 
at A and A^show about the point of first fracture, and may be 
rightly said to be the portion of a hook that the greatest strain 
comes upon. 

The flat hooks, Fig. 162, were made or forged from the same 
1\" round bar as that from which the round 
hooks. Fig. 161, were made. In making 
hooks, some construct them after the style 
shown in the crane hook. Fig. 163, which is 
simply a round iron hook having the portion 
at S the largest in diameter. Whatever size 
is required for the hook shown at S, com- 
mercial bar iron of that diameter is taken to 
make the hook from ; and, to give the hook 
proportion, the other parts are forged down 
similar to the proportion as shown. To 
hold such a hook in the crane's blocks, a 
thread is cut on the shank at K. The 
principle involved in the hook part can be used in almost all 
classes of hooks. Taking every thing into consideration, this 
style of hook is a very good one for general work ; as it not 
only gives a strong hook, but it is simple and easy to forge. 
The point Y, as shown, runs well up, so that where two chains 




Fig. 163. 



HOOKS. 485 

are hitched on the hook (a thing often required upon crane 
Iiooks in a foundry) , there would be no danger of their slipping 
off from the hook. While this is advantageous in this respect, 
there is a limit to the height of the point. A point any higher 
than shown would be much in the way when the hook was used 
to hitch directly into another hook, — a thing which is also often 
necessary to do. 

Another feature that should not be lost sight of is, that while 
at iV, Fig. 162, and S, Fig. 163, there is the greatest strain 
upon the hook : the bottom, as at P, Fig. 163, when the hook 
is loaded with two chains, is also greatly strained, and such 
strains have been known to break hooks at P. 

To construct a well-proportioned hook, the sections N and S 
should be larger in area than that of any other portion, from 
the fact that there is the point which has to stand the greatest 
strain. Theoretically, a really well-proportioned hook would 
be one so constructed that an expert would be puzzled to rightly 
guess the part first to break. 

While the above is true proportion, I do not think it advis- 
able to have hooks so finely constructed. It is well to have the 
section at N or S a little the weakest ; for then there will be a 
chance to watch and note any overloading of the hook, which 
can be told by any opening out of the ja\^ ■ I^ is advisable, in 
any tool that can endanger life, to have it, if possible, so con- 
structed that its user can be forewarned of any tendency to 
break. 

From the above tests, two things are to be deduced. One is, 
that the flattened hook is the stiff est ; while through this very 
element it may be said to be the most treacherous, from the fact 
that they are often apt not to open sufficiently before breaking 
to attract attention, while the round hook generally affords 
ample warning of an overloading. The strength of the hook 
depends greatly upon the mechanic who forges it. There is 
such a thing as abusing and distorting the fibres of iron so as 



48^) HOOKS. 

to leave the hook strained within itself when finished, and no 
doubt many hooks have been broken that would have stood a 
much greater load if there had been more skill used in their 
construction. One may have hooks made from the same bar 
that, when tested, would give such different results as to cause 
doubts of the same bar having been used. Hooks should never 
be loaded to any thing like what may be thought their ultimate 
strength, and in designing them a large factor of safety should 
be allowed. 

Heretofore there has been, as a general thing, but little thought 
given to the question of proportioning hooks, as can be readily 
seen by considering the varieties in use. To Henry R. Towne 
of Stamford, Conn, (manufacturer of hoisting-machinery) 
belongs the praise of presenting, in his work upon cranes, a 
*' standard hook ; " and through the courtesy of Mr. Towne the 
hook, accompanied by his formula for its construction, is here 
shown. It is no doubt a hook which will by practical men be 
received as one worthy of imitation. 

..." Fig. 164 represents, to a scale of one-sixth natural 
size, a 5-ton hook of the dimensions and shape determined by 
the following formulae, which give the dimensions of the several 
parts of hooks of capacities from 250 pounds (or one-eighth of 
a ton) up to 20,000 pounds (or 10 tons). For hooks of larger 
sizes the formulae become slightly different, the general propor- 
tions, however, remaining the same. 

" For economy of manufacture, each size of hook is made 
from some regular commercial size of round iron. The basis, 
or initial point, in each case, is therefore the size of iron of 
which the hook is to be made, which is indicated by the dimen- 
sion A in the diagram. The dimension D is arbitrarily 
assumed. The other dimensions, as given by the formulae, 
are those which, while preserving a proper bearing-face on the 
interior of the hook for the ropes or chains which may be 



HOOKS. 



4s: 



passed through it, give the greatest resistance to spreading and 
to ultimate rupture which the amount of material in the 
original bar admits of. The symbol A is used in the formulae 
to indicate the nominal capacity of the hook in tons of 2,000 




Fig. 164. 

pounds. The formulae which determine the lines of the other 
parts of the hooks of the several sizes are as follows, the 
measuremeuts being all expressed in inches : — 



2> = 0.5A +1.25 
^ = 0.64A + 1.60 
F = 0.33 A + 0.85 

E = 1.08^ 
J =1.33^ 
J = 1.20^ 
K=1ASA 



G = 0.75D 

O = 0.363A + 0.66 

Q = 0.64A + 1.60 

L = 1.05^ 
JW= 0.50.1 
JV=0.85B-0.16 
U = 0.866v4 



' ' Example. — To find the dimension D for a 2-tou hook. The 

formula is : — 

J) = 0.5A + 1.25, 



488 HOOKS 

and as A = 2 the dimension D by the formula is found to be 2^ 
inches. 

" The dimensions A are necessarily based upon the ordinary 
merchant sizes of round iron. The sizes which it has been 
found best to select are the following : — 

Capacity of hook . \, \, \, 1, 1^, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10 tons. 
Dimensional . . |, li, f, \^, \\, If, If, 2, 2\, 2\, 2|, 3i inches. 

"The formulae which give the sections of the hook at the 
several points are all expressed in terms of A, and can there- 
fore be readily ascertained by reference to the foregoing scale. 

" Example. — To find the dimension / in a 2-ton hook. The 
formula is / = 1 .33^, and for a 2-ton hook A = \^ inch. 
Therefore /, in a 2-ton hook, is found to be 1^ inch. 

" Experimemt has shown that hooks made according to the 
above formulae will give way first by opening of the jaw, which, 
however, will not occur except with a load much in excess of 
the nommai capavcity of the hook. This yielding of the hook 
when overloaded becomes a source of safety, as it constitutes a 
signal of danger which cannot easily be overlooked, and which 
must proceed to a considerable length before rupture will occur 
and the load be dropped. " . . . 

Figs. 165 to 170 are cuts of hooks very useful for foundries. 
The liookSjFigs. 165-167, may be properly termed crane-hooks, 
as they are cliiefly used with cranes. The cuts of Figs. 165-167 
show both ends of their hooks as being parallel to each other: 
in practice they are generally made so that the lower hooks L 
will stand at right angles to the upper hooks X. Hook Fig. 165 
is one which is handy to hitch to crane-hooks in order to save 
labor and trouble in handling lighter loads than the capacity of 
crane-hooks is intended for. In heavy cranes the benefit of 
such a hook is much felt, as the bending and turning of heavy 



HOOKS. 



iSV 



hooks and blocks in bitching onto light loads is more or less a 
nuisance. In some cases it is well to have two of these hooks, 
one to be lighter than the other : the larger of the hooks cari 
often be used to good advantage if made nearly the capacity ol 
the crane's hook. 




Fig. 165. 





Fig. 166. 



Fig. 167. 



Figs. 166 and 167 are what are commonly known as 
" changing hooks," on account of their being used in changing 
loads from one crane to another. Fig. 167 may be termed the 
safest hook from the fact that it is welded to the shank as 
shown. Fig. 166 is the most popular hook, no doubt because 
its double hook-end presents the least interference when hitching 




fR\ fi^ 



\y^ 




Fig. 168, 



Fig. 169. 



Fig. 170. 



on. Fig. 168 is well known as the S-hook, and is one found 
to be very handy in many ways, and can be made from flat iron 
as well as round. Figs. 169 and 170 are a style of link and 
hook seldom to be found. They are simply made from flat 
iron, ranging from ^" up to 1" in thickness, and in width from 
1" up to 3". They make the stiffest kind of a hook, and would, 
no doubt, be much used were their strength more fully known. 



490 BALANCING AND HOISTING MOULDS. 



BALANCING AND HOISTING MOULDS. 

The balancing and hoisting of moulds ie an operation that 
often involves experimenting, and sometimes results in loss of 
life or limbs. Of course there are a large number of moulds 
that one can readily hitch to, but again there are a large num- 
ber that require good mechanical judgment and knowledge in 
hoisting ; for such, the following notes and ideas set forth will 
be of value. 

In hitching to moulds, there is one thing that is very apt to 
be overlooked. The general impression is, that, if the crane- 
blocks hang directly over the centre of a mould's weight, it will 
hang level when hoisted up. This idea is not correct, as will 
be seen by the simple example ilkistrated in cut marked "Test," 
Fig. 171. This block, instead of being suspended by an over- 
head fulcrum, is let rest upon an underneath fulcrum. The block 
is divided by a dotted line. Each of the parts B and -4 weighs 
exactly alike. Still you have to deduct 6.76 pounds, or nearly 
7 pounds, from B, and add it to A, in order to make the block 
balance, as shown. This will be readily understood by those 
who have studied the principle of the lever, and illustrates that 
a mould's centre of weight is not always its balancing- point, 
and that, instead of guessing for the centre of weight, we should 
guess for its centre of gravit}-. Some may ask. Is there not a 
more intelligent way to hitch to a mould than by mere guess- 
work? There is no practical way. Of course the weight might 
be figured, and its balancing-point be determined ; but the time 
involved makes such a course generally impracticable. 

As shown by the plumb-bob line, the fulcrum or lifting-chain 



1 



I 



BALANCING AND HOISTING MOULDS. 491 

IS directly over the centre of gravity of the weight. This is 
obtained through the regulation of the slings shown hitched to 
the lifting-beam. 

The regulation of slings to make a mould balance, although 
apparently so simple, is an operation that sometimes puzzles a 
moulder. It often troubles him to tell which way the slings 
should be moved upon the lifting-beam, when they find a mould 
hanging similar to the weight that is shown at M, in dotted 
lines below B, A. The cause of such uulevel balancing would 
be, that the fulcrum or lifting-block was hung over the point /*, 
seen in B A, the right-hand sling being set in the beam's notch 
No. 4, and the left-hand sling set in No. 1. To make the 
weight hang level, they must be placed as shown ; remembering 
that moving a sling towards the centre of a beam lifts up the 
moxdd's side or end, and that moving a sling towards the end 
of the beam loivers it. I have often seen tirst-class moulders 
obliged to study for quite a while before they could tell which 
way the slings should be moved. 

About the most dangerous class of moulds with which we 
have to deal are those similar to the one marked Cylinder. In 
lifting such moulds, extra care must be taken, or the mould will 
turn over on account of the weight being all above that portion 
by which the mould is lifted. In hoisting any mould, as long 
as we can have the largest portion of its weight below the point 
by which it is lifted, there is generall}- little danger of its cap- 
sizing. Some, in hoisting such a mould, will drive wedges 
beneath the cross or beam, as seen at X. This is, no doubt, a 
good plan to adopt in hoisting top-heavy moulds. The farther 
from the beam the point from which the crane-hook is bitched 
to it, the more weight will it require to pull the lifting-beam out 
of balance ; that is, if the point by which the beam is suspended 
is rigid, so that it will always remain in its own relation or 
angle to the beam. In the beam shown lifting B and A. the 
chain-hook is hitched in an upright rigid beam at right angles 



492 BALANCING AND HOISTING MOULDS. 

to the main beam. In this upright beam are four holes. The 
fourth or upper one is the fulcrum point now used. To illus- 
trate how we can regulate this point, we will suppose that 
this beam has no weight upon it, thereby allowing us to rock 
it back and forward. After noticing how much weight it will 
take to make one end come down to a given point, we will 
then cut off the top down to hole No. 3. The hook being 
hitched in this hole, we again try it, and so on down to No. 1. 
Now, I think it is very evident that with the top three holes cut 
off, and No. 1 used for the fulcrum, it will not require much 
force to turn the beam entirely over, did the chain seen not 
prevent it. 

This explanation will, I think, prepare for an understanding 
of the principle and advantages of the cross shown. The ideas 
embodied in this cross, and its lifting slings and hooks, are 
such as can be applied to all classes of beams. The rigging, 
as shown, was devised by R. B. Swift. It is the first cross of 
the kind I ever saw; and, as I used it for six years, I 
know it to be a valuable appliance. The ordinary plan 
of hoisting with crosses is to hitch to an eye S. By this plan 
the fulcrum is but little above the centre iVof the beam. Now, 
as we have seen, that, the higher we raise the fulcrum, the 
harder it is to tip up a beam, we must acknowledge that by 
hitching at F, and having the hook slings spread apart as 
shown, it would be a hard matter to tip over a mould, even in 
hoisting top-heavy moulds similar to the cylinder shown. In 
using this lifting-cross, we rarely use any wedges between it 
and the mould X. So, if the latter is not exactly balanced at 
the point where it is hitched on, there will be little danger of 
its tipping over if the mould does not lift in a level position. 

Another feature of this beam is that its straight face V is 
underneath. This construction is good, as it gives a more 
reliable surface to wedge against when using the cross for bind- 
ing a mould together to be cast. Still another good feature is 



BALANCING AND HOISTING MOULDS 40.1 

the "lengthening arms," of which there are four. The inden- 
ture E is for the purpose of allowing the arm to clear the sling F 
when it is attached to the cross. At any time, should a longer 
beam or cross be wanted, the arms can be readily attached. If 
a stronger lifting-cross is required tlian the one sTiown, the 
principle set forth will admit of making it of any size or strength. 
i2 is a wrought-iron strap used to bind the outer end of 
" lengthening arms," while a bolt is inserted in the holes seen 
near the centre N, to hold the inner end. T shows the lifting- 
eye y, as seen before being hitched on to the cross. The sling 
seen at F is another view of -P, as seen hitched to the cross. 
The " swivel " shown is a well-devised one, and is very handy 
for adjusting or binding heavy loam moulds when being hoisted 
or got ready to be east. 



INDEX. 



Beam Slings, 

regulation of, 436. 
Bedding-tn, 

advantages of and objection to, 147. 

different modes for, 150, 152. 

guides for knocking down patterns, 152. 

moulders' lack of experience with, 149. 

skill required for, 146. 

use of sledges for, 150. 
Binders, 

experiments in testing strength of cope, 205, 

for weighting down copes, 204. 
Blacking, 

bags, 209. 

carbon in, 311. 

charcoal, 209, 215. 

coke, 213, 314. 

complaints against, 208. 

composition of poor and rich, 211. 

daubing for patching cores, etc., 111. 

definition of sea coal, 212. 

elemsnts in foundry, 209, 211. 

green-sand skin-dried moulds, 171. 

heavy work moulds, 208. 

lead in, 212, 215. 

Lehigh, 212, 214. 

printing of, 209. 

495 



496 INDEX. 

Blacking, — Continued. 

production of black lead, 215. 

silver lead. 210, 215. 

soapstone, 216. 

surface of roll chills, 237. 
Blast Pressure, 

amount required, 301 , 378, 390. 

cutting cupolas' linings, 277, 306. 312, 391. 

as required for coal and coke, 277, 301, 305, 309. 

for 12" to 18" cupolas, 269. 

difference of, in cupolas and blast-pipes, 307, 308. 

gauging of, 307, 308. 

mild for cupolas, 268, 378, 390, 412. 

objections to using, 302, 306. 

Sturtevant's table for, 309. 

value of uniform distribution of, 378, 390. 
Blast Pipes, 

detachable leather or rubber, 268. 

diameter vs. length for, 316. 

friction of air in, 316. 

reference-points upon, 329. 

table for equalizing the diameter of, 317. 

table for the diameter of main, 318. 

value of air-tight, 316. 
Blowers, 

location for, 316. 

driving-power for, 302, 308, 316. 
Blow-holes, 

caused from pouring dull iron, 9. 

produced by chaplets, 52. 

generated through mould-blowing, 41. 
Bolting, 

down binders, — plans for making, 204. 

down floors for green-sand work, 229. 

down loara moulds, 65, 88, 438. 

half cores together, 92. 

up a difficult loam core, 259. 
Burning of Castings, 217. 

amount of iron to use in, 223. 

grade of iron to use for, 223. 



INDEX. 497 

PlUSHES, 

caiuel's-liair, 171, 210, 
Candles, 

use of, in closing moulds, 57. 
Carbon, 

in blacking, 211. 

in fuel, 289, 305. 

gases, utility of, 391, 428. 
Carriages, 

anti-friction bearings for axles in, 233, 471. 

devices for pulling crane, 444, 445, 460, 466, 470. 

for delivery of large castings and ladles, 231. 

ill-constructed crane, 443. 

short, advantages of, for cranes, 442. 

tracks for cranes, 460. 
Castings, 

cheap bought, 15. 

cold-shut, 19, 109, 161, 213. 

designing, points of value in, 2, 20, 21, 54. 

dirt in gated end of, 114, 127. 

dirt, injury it can cause to, 16, 19. 

dirt, provisions for collecting and confining it in, 16, 42, 50. 

dirt, rising to upper surfaces of, 41, 44, 239. 

dirt, where generated from in, 15, 122, 127. 

filleting for strength in, 3. 

finishing up, allowing stock for, 114, 118, 132. 

good, uncertainties in producing, 24, 31. 

large, specimens of, 72, 76. 

over-shot, 100, 138, 159, 259. 

poured with hot and dull metal, 38, 41. 

round edges on, 161. 

smooth, points in procuring, 13, 38, 40, 45, 102, 210, 214, 236. 

sound finished, science of making, 39. 

sound, difficulties in producing, 3, 13, 46. 

strains on, 55, 147, 163, 230, 256, 263. 

strength of, 1, 8, 14, 19. 

strengthening, 3, 54, 432. 

strong, heavy rcrap for making, 280. 

weights of, errors in figuring, 247. 

well proportioned, 4. 



498 INDEX. 

Castings, — Continued. 

Wrinkles in Moulding Small : — 

core arbors for small, 141. 

cores, making of, for small, 102. 

flask hinges for small, 139. 

mould-boards for small, 134. 

making joints on moulds for small, 159. 

making patterns for small, 165, 167. 

printing blacked moulds for small, 209. 

procuring " good lifts" on moulds for small, 159. 

skimming-gates for, 123. 
Chains, 

flat link-racking, 456, 460. 
multiplication of parts in crane-hoisting, 481. 
strength of, 439, 481. 
stretching of carriage pulling, 444. 
treacherousness of, 448. 

un-parallel hanging of crane-hoisting, 443, 445. 
Chaplets, 

distance to allow for wedging, 183. 
iron stands for supporting, 64, 183. 
improper setting and wedging of, 178. 
loose and tight heads on, 184. 
sharp pointed, 183. 
stem for, 184. 

wooden blocks for supporting bottom, 183. 
Chapleting, 

green-sand pipe-cores, 141. 
slanting core surfaces, 184. 
wrinkles of value in, 52, 57, 64, 93, 260. 
Chilled Axle Bearings, 231. 
Chilled Rolls, 

blacking for surface of chills for, 237. 
handy flask for small, 238. 
novel flask for long-necked, 234. 

rule and table for thickness to make chills for, 235, 236. 
utility of whirl-gates in procuring clean, 239. 
Cinders, 

beds under moulds, 132, 163. 

fine, power of, to resist pressure, 163. 



' 



INDEX. 499 

Cinders, — Continued. 

in cores, 58. 

in loam-work, 59, 62, 67. 83, 258. 

use of, in venting deep-sided moulds, 161. 
Circles, 

rule for division of, 33, 34, 263. 

table for areas and circumference of, 322. 
Combustion, 305. 

chemical action of, in cupolas, 306. 

creation of, in centre of large cupolas, 301, 303, 377, 378. 

economy of, in core ovens, 227. 

forced in, deep drying-pits, 61. 

increased in cupolas by use of " upper tuyeres," 288. 

pound of air required per pound of carbon for, 305, 308. 
Contraction, 

definition of, for foundry practice, 461. 

of long runner gates, 90. 

strains caused to castings through, 220, 461. 
Cores, 

bank sand in, 102. 

beer on, 103. 

blacking small, saving labor in, 103, 

centring of vertical set, 58. 

cinders in, 58. 

cylinder, port and exhaust, making of, 52, 104. 

difficult loam, 62, 67, 256. 

dry sand, expense of making, 140. 

filing a taper on round, 176. 

fine sand for, 102. 

flour in, 102. 

flour and rosin in, 103. 

gas in, cause of, 101. 

green-sand pipe, 140. 

green sand, for arms in wheels, 263. 

green sand, advantage of, for pipe castings, 145. 

making and venting of, 101. 

pasting of, to form air-tight joints, 92. 

rosin in, 102. 

sagging of, 103. 

segments of, 65, 250, 254. 



500 INDEX, 

Cores, — Continued. 

setting and centring of ordinary, 173. 

setting of cylinder, 51, 57, 108. 

sleeking green-sand pipe, objections to, 142. 

splicing and securing vents in " butted," 118. 

suspending a heavy dry-sand, 91. 

tliin, making of, 101. 

vreigtliing down, rules for, 198, 202. 
Core Arbors, 

for green-sand pipe cores, 141, 144. 

long skeleton, 91. 

self-forming print and supporting, 144. 

thickness to allow for green sand on pipe, 142. 

trunnions on, 143. 

vent-holes in, 142. 
Core Boxes, 

construction of, for cylinders, 57, 104, 113. 

sand sticking to, 103. 

small round iron, 176. 
Core Irons, 

cast-iron rods for cylinders, 58, 104. 

experiment with, 106. 

welded rods for cylinders, 58, 105. 
Core Makers, 

unj ust blaming of, 108. 

value of good, 101. 
Copes, 

assistance in obtaining " good lifts," 139, 159, 160. 

partial drying of loam, 86. 

proper making of chaplet holes in, 185. 

rules for weighting down, 196, 198. 

trying off and on, to prevent crushing, 99. 

skin-drying green-sand, 170. 

skeleton for loam-work, 85. 

wedging and blocking upon, 183, 186. 

wooden bars for, 156. 
Cranes, 

advantage of power, over hand, 438, 440. 

advantage of iron frames over wooden for, 446. 

adjusting out-of-plumb jib, 458. 



INDEX. 501 

Cranes, — Continued. 

anti-friction rollers for travelling, 471. 

barrels for wire and chain sustaining cords, 447, 448, 450, 466, 481. 

blocks, advantage of heavy for, 445, 448. 

blocks and sheaves for heavy work, 481. 

bracing up the jib of, 456, 458, 464. 

bracing of travelling, 474. 

capacity of, definition for, 463. 

carriage for, see Carriages, p. 496. 

chains for, see Chains, p. 497. 

conducting-pipes for steam, 439. 

crank-handles, removable for, 446. 

crank-shafts, height for, 460. 

crank-shafts, construction of, 447. 

cupola, 279. 

cylinders as used upon steam, 488, 439. 

expansion and contraction of travelling, 471. 

frames, heavy and light iron I-beams for, 439. 

frames, strength of, for, 467. 

frames, kinds of timber used for, 451. 

friction-power, operating of, 442. 

friction in, loss of power through, 476. 

gearing, designing for, 475. 

" gearing up," 475. 

gearing, "triple-motioned," 454, 468, 

gearing, for more upon, see Gear wheels, p. 505. 

groove wheels for travelling, 471. 

gudgeons, room for oscillation of, 459. 

Land travellers, ill success of, 468. 

hemp ropes for, see Hemp rope, p. 505. 

hooks for, see Hooks, p. 505. 

hooks, inability to turn, 444. 

illustrations of. 278, 442, 446, 455, 457, 464, 469. 

jib, construction of, 439, 442. 446, 454, 464. 

leverage effect of jib, 458. 

lubrication of, 459, 476. 

motive-power as used for running, 445. 

"motions," utility of, in, 476. 

pendents for travelling, 470. 

platforms for power, 438, 442. 



502 INDEX. 

CuANES, — Continued. 

post, construction of, 462. 

post, erecting masts for, 465. 

post, round balls and conical rollers for, 463. 

power of a, 476. 

power vs. speed, relation of, 475, 482. 

power of a man when hoisting, 475. 

operating power-cranes by hand, 440. 

operating a steam-power, 440. 

safety brake for, 459. 

sensitive working of power, 439. 

sheaves, advantage of large, 443, 450. 

sustaining-cords for heavy, 481. 

timber for, see Wood, p. 516. 

travelling, construction of, 468, 474. 

travelling, span of, 474. 

utility of travelling and jib, 472, 478. 

wire rope for, see "Wire Rope, p. 515. 
Cross, 

lengthening arms for, 488. 

safety balancing, 487. 
Cupolas, 

America's practice with melting in, 329-375, 382, 384, 387. 

ability of, to run long heats, 288, 376, 377. 

bunging-up of, 267. 268, 277. 280, 302, 312, 416, 428. 

capacity of a 12", 15", and 18", 270. 

capacity of 20" to 80", 314, 377. 

"centre blast," utility of, 381, 389, 391, 404. 

charging-doors, advantage of high, 288, 304. 

constructed for coal or coke, 271, 276, 303, 320. 

flame at charging-doors, diminishing of, 290, 892, 411. 

hanging-up of, 267, 376. 

hot blast, utility of, 426, 430. 

illustrated, 266, 274, 278, 292, 294, 296, 298, 385, 388, 393, 396, 
402, 406, 415, 422, 429. 

illustrated wind-chambers for, 274, 292, 300. 

large, points for consideration in making, 303, 376, 391, 403. 

liquid iron accumulating in, 277, 312, 423, 428. 

oblong, construction of, 303, 376, 

oddity in designs of, 287. 



INDEX. 503 

CvFOh\s,— Continued. 

original plan for small, 266, 271. 

peep-boles in, 268, 299, 304. 

picking- out and daubing-up of small, 267, 404. 

"scaffolding" of, pieventiou for, 277, 313. 

shells for, construction of, 268. 

small, advantage of, 265. 

small, preparing of, for long heats, 267. 

small, successful melting in, 267. 

styles used in small, 266, 404. 

suction and natural draft, utility of, 413, 414, 424. 

taper in small, advantage of, 268. 

tuyeres for, and melting in, etc., will all be found under their respec- 
tive heads. 
Chakqing up Cupolas, 

closeness of, when using coal or coke, 308. 

difference in weights to use with coal and coke, 270, 276. 

descriptive modes of, 270, 273, 279, 293, 295, 297, 330-376, 395, 396. 

effects of random, 285. 

weights for 12", 15", and 18", 270. 

with heavy scrap-iron, 278, 280, 421, 426. 

with centre-blast tuyeres, 395, 396. 
Cupola -linings , 

blast cutting out, 277, 290, 291, 306. 

daubing' for, 267, 360, 409. 

diminishing the diameter of large cupolas by false, 272. 

fluxes, benefit of, in preserving, 312. , 

improper daubing of, 312. 

thickness of, for small, 267. 
Cylinders, 

blow-holes in, 41, 52. 

cast slanting, 52. 

cast with one head in, .54. 

gating of, 42, 44, 53, 59, 63. 

grades of iron used for, 52. 

horizontal and vertical casting of, 39, 48. 

jacket, 60. 

locomotive, 43, 49. 

marine, 54. 

obtaining of a clean bore in, 38, 51. 



504 INDEX. 

Cylinders, — Continued. 

obtaining: of a clean valve face on, 48, 55. 

scabbing of, 38, 45, 50. 

unequal wear and cutting of, 52. 

un-parallel port and exhaust openings, 55. 

unsound riser-beads on, 46. 
Dull Liquid Iron, 

as used in pouring heavy work, 122. 

causing cold-shut wavy castings, 161, 213. 

cause of holes in castings, 9. 

caused through delays in handling, 283. 

liable to be caused through melting heavy scrap, 280. 

lifting pressure of, 190, 193. 

reason for pouring castings with, 38. 
Drying, 

a cylinder in a pit, 60. 

loam mould on the floor, 86. 

kettles for, 61, 172. 

temporary enclosers for, 86. 
Facing-sand, 

causing veined castings, 213. 

for skin-dried green-sand moulds, 170. 

manipulation in using, 133, 152. 

mixing of, for green-sand work, 214. 
Feeding, 

by "flowing off," 47, 53. 

manipulations in, 7. 

porousness caused through ill, 41. 

solid. 2, 47, 53. 

unpractical, 3. 
Feeding-heads, 

below joints of moulds, 3. 

causing croolced holes in castings, 175. 

restriction to number of, 3. 
Fins, 

contraction of, 98. 

on light castings, 158. 
Finning, 

green-sand skin-dried moulds, 170. 

heavy green-sand work, advantage of, 160. 



INDEX. 505 



ViNNmo,— Continued. 

of loam and dry -sand moulds, 95. 
Fire-brick, 

for false linings in cupolas, 272. 

for oven fire-places, 227. 

for lining small cupolas, 267. 

FiRE-CLAYB, 

daubing up cupolas with, 267, 277, 360. 

daubing up centre-blast tuyeres with, 409. 
Flanges, 

burning or mending a cracked, 220. 

preventing crushing of, 177. 
Flasks, 

causing bad work, 97, 173. 

for chilled rolls, 234. 238. 

objectionable ways to set bars in, 156. 

trunnions on, 234. 

used for prevention of mould straining, 256. 
Flour, 

boiled to mix with core-sand, 103. 

in cores, 102. 

in green-sand facing, 169. 

rye. 109. 

use of, in setting cores and chaplets, 65, 185. 
Fluxing, 

limestone for, 297, 334. 

fluor spar for, 275, 358. 

marble-yard chips for, 334, 366. 

oyster-shell for, 339. 

utility of, in cupolas, 312, 314. 
Foundries, 

facilities for handling metal in, 283, 284. 

good control of, 30. 

labor-saving rigging in, 140. 

machine labor in, 240. 

railway- tracks in, 230. 
Foundry Facings. 

compositions of cheap, 211. 

machinery used in manufacture of, 212. 

the use of, 211. 



50G INDEX. 

Foundry Practice, 

liydrostatics applied to, 195. 

literature upon, 25, '60, 283. 

novelties in, 22. 

patents for, 22. 

progress in, 29, 241. 

specialties in, 29. 
Fuel, 

best for melting hot iron, 273. 

for skin-drying green-sand moulds, 172. 

kindling of, in cupolas, 271, 276. 

natural gas for heating ovens, 227. 

per cent economically used in melting iron, 284, 287, 390, 401. 

per cent of carbon in, 305. 

slack or soft coal for heating ovens, 226. 
Gaggers, 

castings lost through ill setting of, 158. 

manipulations in using and setting, 157. 

preference for cast or wrought iron, 157. 

setting of, in skin-dried copes, 170. 
Gas, 

cushions formed in moulds, 213. 

in rosin and flour, 102. 

natural, as used in a core oven, 227. 
Gates, 

contraction of long, 90. 

crushing of, 98. 

cutting moulds, prevention for, 170. 

kind easiest upon moulds, 117. 

for cylinders, 43-46, 59. 

for chilled rolls, 239. 

"flow off," 53, 194, 218. 

horn, 90, 123. 

table of, equivalent areas in round and square, etc., 244, 246. 

top pouring, 129. 

skimming, see Skimming-Gates, p. 512. 

styles commonly used, 129, 189. 

which distribute and confine dirt, 116. 

whirl, 18, 90, 237, 239. 

underneath pouring, 117. 



INDEX. 50'J 

QEAR-WHEEL8, 

contraction allowed for large, 263. 

construction of arms and rim for, 461. 

definition of plirases used for, 477. 

device for moulding, 242, 261. 

form of tooth recommended for large, 264. 

pitch used for cranes, 477. 

objections to core cast, 261. 

strains in cast, 461. 

strength of teeth in, 478, 479. 

tables for computing pitch, etc., of, 478. 

table of standard faces for spur, 479. 

utility of worm, 480. 
Hemp Rope, 

circumference of, to equal strength of wire rope, 449. 

objections to, 449. 

substituting wire rope for, 450. 
Hinges, 

for small work flasks, 139. 
Hoisting Moulds, 490. 

a diflicult loam core, 67. 

determining centre of gravity in, 490. 

propeller- wheel copes, 86. 
Hooks, 428, 

crane " changing," 489. 

designing of, 486. 

experiments on strength of round and flat, 488. 

forging of, 485. 

formulas for constructing crane, 486, 488. 

proportioned construction of round, 484. 

sizes of iron for crane, 488. 

S, O, and C, 489. 

true proportioned, 485. 

weakest portion of, 484, 485. 
Iron, Cast, 

benefit of agitating fluid, 10. 

formulas upou strength of, 14. 

specific gravity of, 196. 

strength obtained fr.mi hot-poured, 8, 9. 

three essential factors to determine in, 11. 



508 INDEX. 

Ikon, Cast, — Continued. 

welding of steel and wrought iron to cast, 217. 
Joints, 

ability required to make irregular-sliaped, 155. 

bead for hiding overshotness at, 100. 

blacking of dry-sand and loam, 99. 

charcoal blacking for parting, 256. 

difference in finning dry-sand and loam, 99. 

for small castings, 134, 158. 

objection to patched, 156. 

paper for forming, 117. 

points in forming loam, 100, 259. 

proper ways to form deep pocket, 157. 

raised, 112. 

rule for slope in slanting, 157. 
Ladles, 

cause of sulliage gathering upon ■kimmed, 127. 

melting iron in a, 249. 

screw crane, 232, 233. 
Level, 

how to test and use untrue, 154. 
Level Beds, 

how to make a true, 153. 

made with pulley rims, 251. 
LOAM-CAKEB, 

for forming grooves, 80. 

for absorbing moisture, 83. 

LOAM-WOKK, 

building copes, 85. 
cinders in, 83, 258. 
false hub made of, 82. 
guides for closing, 93, 260. 
making plates and rings for, 35-37, 260. 
means for obtaining required thickness in, 69. 
odd ways of building, 59. 
pits used for moulding in, 60, 70. 
skeleton copes for, 85. 
springing of moulds, 55. 
stiffening plate for, 60, 67, 260. 
Machine-moulding, advantages claimed for, 148, 149, 240. 



INDEX. 509 

Melting, 

advantages of coal for, 370, 273, 278, 280. 

advantages of coke for, 273. 

benefits derived from coal and coke mixed, 274, 278. 

capacity of cupolas from 20" to 80" diameter, 314, 377. 

economy in, 283, 287, 295. 

escape of heat in, 288, 392, 411. 

fluxes, aiding, 312, 314. 

heavy black or scrap in cupolas, 278, 280, 426. 

iron hot, 274, 284. 

long heats, 274, 276, 277, 288, 289, 313, 814, 376, 377. 

small quantities of iron, 248, 265. 

speed in, 273, 289, 309. 

scrap-steel in cupolas, 431, 436. 

wrought-iron scrap in cupolas, 432. 

wrought or steel borings in cupolas, 436. 

with all coal,* 279, 330, 331, 333, 336, 339, 340, 344, 367, 372. 

with all coke,* 270, 275, 293, 297*, 332, 334, 335, 341, 342. 346. 
347. 349, 350-352, 354, 358, 359, 361-366, 368-370, 375. 

with coal and coke,* 270. 275^ 293, 337, 338, 343, 345, 348, 353, 
355-357, 360, 371-374. 
Melters, superstitious and intelligent, 282. 
Molasses, 

blacking for chill rolls, 237. 

water on cores, 103. 

water on skin-dried moulds, 171. 
Moulders, 

bench, 158. 

good reliable expert, 26. 

ignorance of many, 32. 

making cores, 101. 

mental and physical development of, 26. ' 

progressive, 23, 283. 
Moulding, 

a curved pipe from a straight pattern, 250, 

a jacketed cylinder, 60. 

a large piston, 179. 

device for sweeping gear-wheels, 261. 

* Total meltings with all coal, ten ; with all coke, twenty-nine ; with coal and 
coke, eighteen. 



510 INDEX. 

MotTLDiNG, — Continutd. 

difficult loam-cores, 62, 67. 

elbow and branch pipes, 143. 

finished castings horizontally, 114. 

hydraulic hoists, 89, 114. 

large air-vessels, 256. 

pipes on end in green sand, 252. 

propeller-wheels in loam, 81. 

true gear-wheels, 149, 261. 
Mould-boards, 

composition for making, 136. 

making match plate, 137. 

making plaster-of-Paris, 134. 

making sand, 136, 

mended with beeswax, 136. 

patent elastic, 137. 

styles commonly used, 134. 

wooden, 136, 149. 
Moulding-machines, 

patent gear, 242. 

utility of, 240. 
Moulding-sand, 

elements in, 211. 

in cores, 102. 

oil and litharge in, 136. 

sharp sand mixed with, 170. 

strengthening of, 169. 

wet with beer for mending loam-moulds, etc.. Ill, 118. 
Nailing, 

around core-prints, 111, 175. 

corners of loam-moulds, 59. 

edges of sand mould-boards, 137. 

joints of green-sand moulds, 155. 

skin-dried green-sand moulds, 170. 
OVENB, 

construction of a modern, 225. 

heated with natural gas, 227, 426. 
Oxygen, 

causing " suUiage " upon liquid metal, 127. 

union with carbon in melting, 288, 302, 305, 306, 391, 483. 



INDEX. 511 



Paste, 

discretion in use of, 108. 

mixed with clay-wash and blacking, 109. 

mixed with oil, 109. 

to properly mix, 110. 
Patterns, 

abuse of, 150, 164, 166. 

brass and iron, 167. 

constructed for bedding-in, 154. 

draw-irons for, 166, 168. 

draw-screws for, 164. 

facilities for drawing of, 167. 

formed of sand, 117. 

hollow elbow and branch pipe, 140, 143. 

" loosening-bar " for rapping, 165. 

lack of taper to, 164, 168. 

"pounding-block" for preserving, 164. 

pulley rim used for moulding-pipes, 251, 254. 

rapping of, 159, 165. 

rapping plates for, 159, 165. 

segments of, 251, 254. 

skeleton frame for, 117, 132. 
Pattern-makers, 

attainments of, 164. 

doing moulder's work, 32. 

making patterns for finished castings, 41, 43. 

remarks for, 181. 

thought and skill required of, 168. 

unskilled, 164. 
Pipes, 

elbow and branch, 140, 143. 

points of value in horizontal moulding of, 20. 

pulley-rim used for moulding, 251, 254. 



Pits, 



casting deep work in shallow, 93. 
desirable location for, 229. 
fitted up for drying loam-work in, 61. 
formed with cast-iron rings, 228. 
for moulding loam-work in, 60, 70. 
vent-channel, 228, 



512 INDEX. 

Plaster-of- Paris, 

composition of, 134. 

makiug mould- boards of, 134. 
Pouring, 

air-vessels, 260. 

chilled rolls, 238. 

condensers, 67. 

creation of " sulliage" when, 127. 

cylinders, 44, 53, 59, 65. 

green-sand pipes on end, 255. 

grooved drums, 76. 

heavy castings, — temperature of metal used for, 122. 

large volumes of metal, 120, 

moulds having extremes in space for metal, 44. 

momentum effect in, 187. 

propeller wheel, 88. 

slow filling-up by vertical bottom, 192. 

thin pipe vertically, 45. 

top and bottom, advantage of, 44. 

two " open sand " plates in one mould, 260. 
Pouring-basins, 

construction of, for skimming, 18, 117, 130. 

cutting of, 130. 

error in making long, 131. 

for chilled rolls, 237, 239. 

height above "flow-off risers," 194. 

made in loam, 65. 

patterns for forming, 255. 
Pressure of Liquid Iron, 

momentum, definition of, 194. 

upon chapleted cores, risks from, 182, 

upon bottom and side of moulds, rule for finding, 195. 

upon sides of flasks, 149. 

statical head, definition of, 204. 

when poured dull, 190, 193. 
Prints, 

chamfering core, 177, 

cores forming their own, 113. 

discussions upon, 173. 

for pipe or column patterns, 143, 



INDEX. 513 



Prints, — Coufinucd. 

gaggerin-;- and securing around core, 111, 175. 

making cylinder core, 110. 

setting cores without, 133. 

taper, 174. 

vertical loam-core, 57, 67. 
Printing of blacked green-sand moulds, 209. 
Ramming, 

bard, 156, 163. 

to obtain " good lifts," 158. 

up loam-moulds, 65, 88, 228. 
Risers, 

"blind," 126. 

current of air tbrougb, 126. 

" flow-off." 49. 218. 

Influence of in lessening pressure, 190. 

RODDING, 

green-sand cores, 251, 254. 

loam mould, 59. 
Rolling over, 

advantage of, 146. 

bad work caused by, 149. 

wrenching flasks by, 148. 
Rosin, in cores, 102. 
Scabs, 

friction at gates causing, 117. 

loam-moulds, part most liable to, 50. 

range for thickness of, 19. 

sticky blacking causing, 210. 

top-pouring causing, 45. 
Screws, 

for adjusting and centring loam-cores, 64. 

pitch of, definition for, 74. 

swivel, 438. 
Slag, 

accumulation of, 310. 

creation of, causes for, 267, 291, 313. 

cold blast effecting, 312, 402. 

tapping out, 311. 



514 INDEX. 

Slagging out, 

table showing benefit of, 314. 
Slag-holes, position and height for, 311, 377, 402, 416. 
Shrinkage, 

definition of, for foundry practice, 406. 

holes caused through, 2, 7, 41, 46. 

per cent in, experiments to determine, 4. 

percentage, rule for figuring, 7. 

round balls, 5. 
Skimming-gates, 

bad elements in ordinary, 125. 

" blind risers " attached to, 126. 

castings gated to each other acting as, 127. 

cores for forming, 18, 116, 117, 125, 130. 

heavy and light work, 120. 

illustrated forms for, 17, 121, 123, 125. 

long channel, advantage of, 127. 

patterns forming, 124, 126. 

patent, 125. 

positive acting, 132. 

relative proportions for, 17, 122. 

utility of, 19, 122. 

value of, for heavy work, 122. 

whirl, 120, 123. 
Skin-drying, 

green -sand moulds, 169-172. 

loam-moulds, 80. 
Spindles, 

arms, novel plan for, 68. 

anti-friction arm for, 82. 

for horizontal sweeping, 89. . 

for revolving loam-cores, 66. 

size of, 70. 

spiral groove, 76. 
Squares, areas of, 322. 
Stakes, 

in green-sand cores, 251, 253. 

proper way to drive. 159. 

ring for protection of, 159. 



i>;i)EX. 515 



Steel Scrat, 

anuealing of castings made from, 431, 436. 

carbonization and oxidation of, 438, 435. 

carbon, bigh and low in, 432. 

castings made of, 431. 

heat required for melting, 433. 

melting of, in cupolas, 431, 436. 

melting of, in crucibles and air-furnaces, 435. 

mixed with cast iron for cbilling purposes, 432, 435. 

principles in melting, 436. 

procuring homogeneous castings, 434. 

soft, best for making strong castings, 432. 

strengthening cast iron with, 432. 
Steel, welding of, to cast iron, 317-220. 
Straight-edges, 

how to make level beds with, 153. 

parallel, 153. 

squaring beds with, 36. 
Sweeps, 

air-vessel, 275. 

balance weight for raising and lowering, 87. 

cylinder, 58. 62. 

dry-sand taper-core, 92. 

groove-drum, 73, 77, 79. 

gear-wheel, 262. 

ill gauging of, 69. 

ironing wooden, 78. 

lathe face-plate, 132. 

revolving loam-core, 67. 
Sweeping, 

adjustable guide for, 82. 

difficult loam-cores, 62, 67, 257. 

device for gear-wheels, 242, 261. 

green-sand pipe-cores, 140, 143. 

grooves in drum, 72, 76, 78, 80. 

large lathe face-plate, 132. 

long irregular dry-sand cores, 92. 

manipulations in green-sand, 117, 132. 

revolving loam-cores, 70. 

"thickness" on loam-moulds, 84, 256, 258. 



516 INDKX. 

Sweeping, — Continued. 

under surface of loam-moulds, 66. 
Testing, 

bars, moulding of, 13. 

bars, size for, 8. 

burnt or mended castings, 218. 

machine, 10. 

pig iron, 265. 

pipes, 20. 

spring of " bolting-down binders," 204. 

table giving strength of hot and dull poured bars, 9. 

value of cupolas, 287. 
Tubes, 

connecting vents of butted column-cores with, 118. 

securing core-vents with, 64. 
Tuyeres, 

areas of for small cupolas, 268, 271, 320. 

areas adaptable for coke and coal, 301, 320. 

area and construction of, rules for finding, 319, 320, 405, 417. 

choking-up of, 307. 313, 377, 392. 

covering-cap for centre blast, 394-397, 400. 

construction of centre blast, 385, 388, 393, 398, 399, 409. 

dimensions for a 12", 15", and 18" cupola, 271. 

equal division of, in cupolas, 319, 390. 

extending into cupolas, 379. 

for centre blast, 381, 385, 388, 393, 399, 400, 406. 

height to adopt for coal and coke, 276, 303. 

large, advantage of, 307, 313, 315. 

kept open for long heats, how to, 307, 313, 392. 

ratio of areas to that of cupolas, table on, 321. 

two rows of, advantage of, for long heats, 289, 361. 

top row, rule for height and area of, 291. 

top row, objections to, 291. 

valves for closing top rows, 289. 

utility of high and low, 377, 401. 
Vents, 

causes of iron getting into core, 38, 51, 55, 58, 107, 118, 181, 206. 

carrying-off of vertical set-core, 177. 

construction of port and exhaust core, 58, 106. 

formed by rods and strings in cores, 106. 



IJifDEX. 517 



Ventb, — Con tin ued. 

metal bursting through core, 107. 

risk of metal getting into under core, 181, 206. 

securing core, 58, 64, 92, 108, 118, 181, 206. 

splicing or connecting, 118. 
Venting, 

cores, 101, 106. 

joints of moulds reliably, 161. 

moulds that require hard ramming, 163. 

sides of deep moulds, 161. 
Yent-wires, 

size of, 162. 

using rods for, 252. 
Wedges, 

breaking of iron , 182. 

dimensions for iron, 184. 
Weights of Castings, 

error in figuring, 247. 

table for saving labor in figuring, 328. 
Weighing Down, 

binders for copes, 204. 

copes, rules for, 196, 198. 

horizontal set-cores, rules for, 198, 201, 202. 

vertical set-cores, 202. 
Wire, 

size for twisting, 51. 

used in tying brickwork, 86. 
Wire Rope, 

advantage of, for cranes, 448. 

for sustaining cords, 447. 

objections to, 292, 394, 447, 449. 

pliability of, 450. 

preserving of, 448, 450. 

Roebling's table, etc. , on strength of, 449. 

sheaves and drums, size for, 447. 
Wheels, causes for crooked holes in, 173. 
Wheel Gearing. See Gear-wheels, 505. 
Wood, 

kinds used for crane frames, 451. 

relative sectional strength of, 453. 



518 INDEX. 

Wood, — Continued. 

table on strength of, 452. 

transverse strengtli of, 453. 
Wrought Iron, 

melting of, in cupolas, 432. 

melting of, in ladles, 432, 436. 

value of, in adding strength to cast iron, 436. 

welding of, to cast iron, 217-220. 



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" Foundations Svo, 

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Pratt and Aldeu's Street-railway Road-beds Svo, 

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Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone Cutting and Masonry. . .Svo, 

Smart's Engineering Laborator}' Practice 12mio, 

Smith's Wire Manufacture and Uses Small 4to, 

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Spalding's Hydraulic Cemeut 12mo, 

Taylor's Prismoidal Formulas aud E:ulhv.-oik 8vo, 

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* " Cross-section Sheet, 

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Turueaure aud Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo, 

Waddell's De Ponlibus (A Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers). 

16mo, morocco, 

"Wait's Engineering aud Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo, 

Sheep, 

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Sheep, 

Warren's Stereotomy— Stone-cutting 8vo, 

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" Railroad Coustruction 8vo, 

Wegmann's Constructiou of Masonry Dams 4to, 

Wellington's Location of Railways. Small 8vo, 

Wheeler's Civil Engineering 8vo, 

Wilson's Topographical Surveying 8vo, 

Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 

HYDRAULICS. 

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(Traulwiue.) 8vo, 

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Church's Mechanics of Engineering, Solids, and Fluids. . . .8vo, 

Coffin's Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems.... . . .12mo, 

Ferrel's Treatise on the Winds, Cyclones, and Tornadoes. . .8vo, 

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Ganguillet & Kutter's Flow of Water. (Bering & Trautwine.) 

8vo, 

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Herschel's 115 Experiments 8vo, 

Kiersted's Sewage Disposal .• 12mo, 

Mason's Water Supply 8vo, 

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Merrimau's Treatise on Hydraulics 8vo, 

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Weisbach's Hydraulics. (Du Bois.) Bvo, 5 00 

Whipple's Microscopy of Driukiog Water 8vo, 3 50 

Wilson's Irrigation Engineering 8vo, 4 00 

" Hydraulic and Placer Miuing 12nio, 2 00 

Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 3 00 

Wood's Theory of Turbines 8vo, 2 50 

LAW. 

Davis's Elements of Lavv^ 8vo, 2 50 

" Treatise on Military Law 8vo, 7 00 

Sheep, 7 50 

Manual for Courts-martial 16mo, morocco, 1 50 

Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo, 6 00 

Sheep, 6 50 

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MANUFACTURES. 

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" " " " Supplement 12mo, 2 50 

Eissler's Explosives, Nitroglycerine and Dynamite 8vo, 4 00 

Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers 18mo, 1 00 

Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures 8vo, 5 00 

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* Reisig's Guide to Piece Dyeing 8vo, 25 00 

Spencer's Sugar Manufacturer's Handbook . . . .16mo, morocco, 2 00 
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16mo, morocco, 3 00 

Thurston's Manual of Steam Boilers 8vo, 5 00 

Walke's Lectures on Explosives 8vo, 4 00 

West's American Foundry Practice 12mo, 2 50 

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Wiechmaun's Sugar Analysis Small 8vo, 2 50 

Woodbury's Fire Protection of Mills Bvo, '>, 50 

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MATERIALS OF ENQiNEERING. 

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Baker's Masonry Construction 8vo, 

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Byrne's Highway Construction Bvo, 

Church's Mechanics of Engineering — Solids and Fluids Svo, 

Du Bois's "Stresses in Framed Structures Small 4to, 

Johnson's Materials of Construction Svo, 

Lanza's Applied Mechanics Svo, 

Marteus's Testing Materials, (Henning. ) 2 vols. , Svo, 

Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration Svo, 

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" Strength of Materials 12nio, 

Patton's Treatise on Foundations Svo, 

Rockwell's Roads and Pavements in France 12mo, 

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Thurston's Materials of Construction Svo, 

" Materials of Engineering 3 vols., Svo, 

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Wood's Resistance of Materials Svo, 

MATHEMATICS. 

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Small Svo, 

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Merriman and Woodward's Higher Mathematics Svo, 

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Merrimaii*s Method of Least Squares 8vo, $2 00 

Rice and Johnson's Differential and Integral Calculus, 

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" Abridgment of Differential Calculus. 

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* Johnson's Theoretical Mechanics. An Elementary Treatise. 

l'2nio, 

Jones's Machine Design. Part I., Kinematics 8vo, 

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Machine Parts 8vo, 

Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 

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Merriman's Mechanics of Materials 8vo, 

Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures 8vo, 

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Richards"s Compressed Air 12nio, 

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The Auimnl as a Machine 12mo, 

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Weisbach's Hydraulics and Hydraulic Motors. (Du Bois.)..8vo, 
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Sec. I. (Klein.) 8vo, 5 00 

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Weisbach's Steam Engines. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 

Wood's Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 

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Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis 8vo, 

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Metcalf's Steel — A Manual for Steel Users 12mo, 

O'Driscoll's Treatment of Gold Ores 8vo, 

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Wilson's Cyanide Processes 12mo, 

MINERALOGY AND MINING. 

Barringer's Minerals of Commercial Value. . ..Oblong morocco, 2 50 

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Boyd's Resources of South Western Virginia 8vo, 3 00 

" Map of South Western Virginia Pocket-book form, 2 00 

Brush and Penfield's Determinative Mineralogy. New Ed. 8vo, 4 00 

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Chester's Catalogue of Minerals 8vo, 

" " " " Paper, 

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" Mineralogy and Petrography. (J. D.) 12mo, 

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* Drinker's Tunnelling, Explosives, Compounds, and Rock Drills. 

4to, half morocco, 

Eglestou's Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms 8vo, 

Eissler's Explosives — Nitroglycerine and Dynamite 8vo, 

Hussak's Rock forming Minerals. (Smith.) Small 8vo, 

Ihlseng's Manual of Mining 8vo, 

Kuuhardt's Ore Dressing in Europe , Svo, 

O'Driscoll's Treatment of Gold Ores Svo, 

* Penfield's Record of Mineral Tests Paper, 8vo, 

Roseubusch's Microscopical Physiography of Minerals and 

Rocks. (Iddings.) 8vo, 

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Walke's Lectures on Explosives Svo, 

Williams's Lithology Svo, 

Wilson's Mine Ventilation 12mo, 

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Pray's Twenty Years with the Indicator Large Svo, 2 50 

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Piipin and Osteiberg's Thermodynamics 12mo, $1 25 

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MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS. 

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Richards's Cost of Living 12mo, 1 00 

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Large Svo, 2 00 

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WoodhuU's Military Hygiene , 16mo, 1 50 

Worcester's Small Hospitals— Establishment and Maintenance, 
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tecture 12mo, 1 35 

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